第12单元 动词（1）
	Ⅰ．概说 　　A．各种动词形式的构成法 　　663 英语中的动词时态不好掌握，其原因之一就是有许多使人产生误解的概念。“一般现在时”很少表示现在时间；“过去时”又可能表示现在的动作；“将来完成时”也可能表示过去的事情；“现在分词”并不总是指现在情况，而“过去分词”也并不老指过去。在某些情况下，“分词”纯然是动词，在有些情况下，它同时是动词又是形容词；在另一些情况中，“现在分词”又变成一个动词兼名词，称为动名词。为了避免某些误解，最好的办法是把它用于句子之前看作是原料，用在句子里之后看作是成品，把这两者严格分开。 　　664 除了助动词，每个动词都有5个形式，例如 see，saw，seen，seeing，to see；又如go，went，gone，going，to go．这些形式都只是原料，不表明它们是指哪个时间、哪种情态及语态，也不表明它们起形容词、副词还是名词的作用。由于它们是没有色彩的字，唯一适当的办法是把see和go称为PP1（Princi－pal Part number one），把 saw，went称作 PP2，把seen，gone称作 PP3，把 seening和 going称作 PP4，把 to see和 to go称作PP5，而不用它们现在的名称（现在时、过去时、过去分词、现在分词及不定式）。可以想像，说“将来时由will和现在时构成”，“过去将来时由would和现在时构成”，在“We are play－ing．”中，playing纯粹是动词，而在“It was interesting．”中，分词又是形容词，等等，是如何地使人糊涂。 　　665 如把这些形式看作原料，就可以用它们（单独或借助have，be，shall，will这类助动词）构成任何情态、时态、语态而表示特定的意义。下表说明这些主要形式如何构成动词的各种时态，以及有些什么主要意义。 　　各种动词形式的构成 　　AUX= may，must，can，should，needn‘t，daren’t，ought to BE= am，is，are，were，was ； can（ or could，may，might，will，would，shall，should，must，had to） be； have been 　　助动词 主要成分 动词形式 解释性例句 　　（do or 一般现在时：AUX+）PP1 表示反复发生或无时间性的动作·I（can） teach English．·I（do） know it． 　　will（or 一般将来时：shall）+ PP1 表示将来动作·I shall teach English next year． 　　would（or 过去将来时：should）+ PP1 表示从过去看的将来情况·He said in 1960 that he would teach English the following　year（i．e．in 1961）． 　　would（or 虚拟过去时：should， 在条件从句中或在表结论的主句中·If I could teach English，I should　might， be happy．（But I could， cannot．） 　　had to（+ PP1 表示实现可能性不大的现在动作·If I knew English， I would teach it．） 　　did（or might，could，一般过去时：表示过去可能发生的情况·He said he could teach English．） 　　had to（+ PP1 　　— PP2 一般过去时：表示过去动作 ·I taught English last year． 　　— PP2 虚拟过去时：表示实现可能性不大的现在动作或无时间性动作 ·If I taught English，I should be a bad teacher．（But I do not．） 　　have（or had，shall have，will have，完成时态：表示过去、现在或将来某时前已完成动作AUX have）+PP3 ·I had taught English by 10 a．m． yesterday．·I have taught English now．·I shall have taught　English by 10 a． m．tomorrow． 　　had+ PP3 虚拟过去完成时：在条件从句中表示不真实的过去动作 ·If I had taught English，I should have been a good teacher．（But I did not teach．） 　　would（orshould，could，might）have+ pp3 虚拟过去完成时：在表结论的主句中表示不真实的过去动作 ·If I had had a chance，I should have taught English． 　　BE+ 被动语态：（being）+ PP3 表示主语是动作的承受者 ·I am（being） taught by Mr．A． 　　（being or having been）+ PP3过去分词：（或被同时作被动动词及形容词 ·I am a student （being） taught by Mr．A． 　　being（orhaving been）+ PP3 被动动名词：作被动动词及名词 ·I like being taught by Mr．A． 　　to be（orto have been）+PP3被动不定式：作被动动词及副词，动词及形容词，或动词及名词 ·He came to be taught．（v．and adverb）·He is not a boy to be taught．（v． and adj．）· He does notlike to be　taught．（v．and n．） 　　BE+ PP4 进行时态：表示正在进行的动作 ·I am teaching English． 　　—PP4 现在（或主动）分词：作主动动词及形容词，或主动动词及副词 ·She is a lady teaching English．（v．and adj．）·She gives us many examples while teaching　English．（v．and adv．） 　　—PP4 主动动名词：作主动动词及名词 ·I like teaching English． 　　to be（or to have been）+PP4 进行不定式：表示重复的动作 ·To be teaching all day long is a bore． 　　— PP5 简单不定式：作为主动动词及副词，动词及形容词或动词及名词 · I have come here to teach English．（v．and adv．）·I am not a man to teach English．（v．and adj．）· I want to teach　English．（v． and n．） 　　—PP5 不带 to（without to ）的不定式：作宾语补语 ·I saw him teach English． 　　666 根据上面的动词形式表，下面的动词组合是违反英语用法的，因而是错误的： 　　is go，was teach，have been make，could saw，might took，can saw，may went，have be seen，will coming，would have saw，had be seen，is eat，ought to had come，must seen，want see，will gone 　　667 下面是一些规则： 　　1．PP1前可以放任何助动词（即may，might，can，could，must，had to，do，did，will，would，shall，should，ought to，daren‘t，needn’t）。 　　2．PP2前不能放任何助动词。 　　3．PP3前可以加have或had构成完成时态。 　　PP3前可以加 be的任何形式构成被动语态。 　　前面无have和be时，PP3是形容词（或副词）兼被动的动词。 　　4．PP4前可加be的任何形式以构成进行时态。 　　前面无助动词时，PP4可以是形容词（分词）或名词（动名词），同时也是动词。 　　5．PP5起名词、副词或形容词的作用，同时又是动词。在用作宾语补语时，前面可能不加to。 　　B．动词的主要成分 　　668 在动词的5个主要成分中，PP4和PP5分别以加-ing及to的方式构成。PP2和PP3大多数都以加-ed的方式构成，但大约有250个动词有不规则的形式。 　　1．规则动词 　　669 即使是规则动词，在构成PP2和PP3时，也有变异处，值得注意。 　　670 PP2及PP3构成法如下： 　　671 一般情况下在PP1后加-ed： 　　PP1 PP2 PP3 　　wish wished wished 　　talk talked talked 　　allow allowed allowed 　　672 PP1 若以e结尾，只加-d： 　　hope hoped hoped 　　hate hated hated 　　debate debated debated 　　（但在构成PP4时，在加-ing前要把e去掉：hoping，hating，debating） 　　673 PP1若以“辅音＋元音＋辅音”（CVC）结尾，最后的辅音字母要双写，再加-ed： 　　stir stirred stirred 　　stop stopped stopped 　　fit fitted fitted 　　admit admitted admitted 　　occúr occúrred occúrred 　　prefér preférred preférred 　　如果最后音节不重读，最后的辅音字母不必双写： 　　óffered，cónquered，éntered，visited，intérpreted，devéloped 　　674 但有一些例外情况： 　　hándicapped，húmbugged，hórsewhipped，z gzagged；wórship（p）ed，k dnap（p）ed，trável（l）ed，dévil（l）ed，cárol（l）ed，módel（l）ed，lével（l）ed，rével（l）ed，péncil（l）ed（美国：-p-，-l-；英国-pp-，－ll－） 　　（注：PP4加词尾-ing时，和加-ed时的情况一样： 　　stirring，stopping；admitting，preférring；óffering，cónquering；wórship（p）ing，trável（l）ing） 　　675 PP1以c结尾时，要变c为ck再加-ed： 　　mimic mimicked mimicked 　　havoc havocked havocked 　　bivouac bivouacked bivouacked 　　picnic picnicked picnicked 　　traffic trafficked trafficked 　　（比较：mimicking，havocking，bivouacking，…） 　　676 PP1若以y结尾，一般要变y为i，再加-ed： 　　try tried tried 　　defy defied defied 　　study studied studied 　　testify testified testified 　　但y前若是一个元音字母，则y不必变： 　　play played played 　　destroy destroyed destroyed 　　employ employed employed 　　obey obeyed obeyed 　　但有几个例外情况： 　　lay laid laid 　　pay paid paid 　　say said said 　　677 -ed词尾有 3种读音。在清辅音后读作［t］： 　　jumped［j)mpt］，dipped，developed 　　book ed［bukt］，baked，havocked 　　kissed［kist］，promised，perplexed 　　hashed［h$t］，finished，demolished 　　perched［p+：：tMt］，inched，lunched 　　knifed ［naiMft］，laugh ed，photographed 　　以t或d结尾的词，-ed读作［id］： 　　acted［$ktid］，seated，permitted 　　aided ［eidid］，ended，succeeded 　　在其他情况下（即PP1以任何其他字母结尾时），－ed读作［d］： 　　loved［l)vd］，named，filled，died，answered，studied，pre-ferred 　　2．不规则动词 　　678 几乎所有不规则动词都是单音节词，少数双音节及三音节词也是由单音节词加前缀构成： 　　a．bet，bless，knit，make，sweat，tread（单音节词）b．be－think，fore-tell，mis－take，un－do，re-build，out－grow，over－lie，under－go（加前缀） 　　c．back-bite，broad-cast，gain-say（合成词） 　　这些双音节词与三音节词所含的PP2与PP3和单音节词的PP2与PP3一样。 　　think，thought，thought；bethink，bethought，bethought tell，told，told；foretell，foretold，foretold 　　bite，bit，bitten；backbite，backbit，backbitten 　　许多以-en结尾的PP3都可用作形容词： 　　frozen fruit，woven thread，hewn timber，cloven hoofs，proven fact，driven snow，grown children，shorn lambs，ter- ror－stricken women，molten iron，drunken people，ill-gottenmoney 　　679 不规则动词表： 　　（斜体词为陈旧形式） 　　PP1（现在时） PP2（过去时） PP3（过去分词） 　　abide abode，abided abode，abided 　　arise arose arisen 　　awake awoke awaked，awoke 　　backbite backbit backbitten， 　　backbit 　　backslide backslid backslid， 　　backslidden． 　　be（am，art，is， was，wast，wert， been are） were 　　bear bore，bare borne，born 　　beat beat beaten 　　become became become 　　befall befell befallen 　　beget begot，begat begotten 　　begin began begun 　　behold beheld beheld， 　　beholden 　　（=indebted） 　　bend bent，bended bent，bended 　　（knees） 　　bereave bereaved，bereaved，bereft 　　bereft 　　beseech besought besought 　　beset beset beset 　　bespeak bespoke bespoken，bespoke 　　bestride bestrode bestridden， 　　bestrid，bestrode 　　bet bet，betted bet，betted 　　betake betook betaken 　　bethink bethought bethought 　　bid bade，bid bidden，bid 　　bide bode bode 　　bind bound bound，bounden 　　bite bit bitten，bit 　　bleed bled bled 　　blend blended，blent blended，blent 　　bless blessed，blest blessed，blest 　　blow blew blown，blowed 　　（=damned） 　　break broke broken，broke（形容词） 　　breed bred bred 　　bring brought brought 　　broadcast broadcast，broadcast， 　　broadcasted broadcasted 　　browbeat browbeat browbeaten 　　build built built 　　burn burnt（英），burned burnt（英）burned 　　burst burst burst 　　buy bought bought 　　cast cast cast 　　catch caught caught 　　chide chid chidden，chid 　　choose chose chosen 　　cleave clove，cleft cloven（hoofs），cleft 　　cling clung clung 　　clothe clothed，clad clothed，clad 　　come came come 　　cost cost cost 　　creep crept crept 　　crow crowed，crew crowed 　　cut cut cut 　　dare dared，durst dared 　　deal dealt dealt 　　dig dug，digged dug，digged 　　dip dipped，dipt（少见） dipped，dipt（少见） 　　dive dived，dove（美） dived 　　do did done 　　draw drew drawn 　　dream dreamed， dreamed， 　　dreamt（英） dreamt（英） 　　dress dressed，drest（少见） dressed，drest（少 见） 　　drink drank drunk，drunken（形容词） 　　drive drove driven 　　drop dropped，dropt（少见） dropped，dropt（少见） 　　dwell dwelt，dwelled dwelt，dwelled 　　eat ate ［et］（英），［eit］ （美）eaten 　　fall fell fallen 　　feed fed fed 　　feel felt felt 　　fight fought fought 　　find found found 　　fit fitted，fit（美） fitted，fit（美） 　　flee fled fled 　　fling flung flung 　　fly flew flown 　　forbear forbore forborne 　　forbid forbade，forbad forbidden 　　forecast forecast，forecast， 　　forecasted forecasted 　　forego forewent foregone 　　foreknow foreknew foreknown 　　foresee foresaw foreseen 　　foretell foretold foretold 　　forget forgot forgotten 　　forgive forgave forgiven 　　forsake forsook forsaken 　　forswear forswore forsworn 　　freeze froze frozen 　　gainsay gainsaid gainsaid 　　get got got，gotten（美） 　　gild gilded，gilt gilded 　　gird girded，girt girded，girt 　　give gave given 　　go went gone 　　grave graved graven（形容词）graved 　　grind ground ground 　　grow grew grown 　　hamstring hamstringed，hamstringed， 　　hamstrung hamstrung 　　hang hung，hanged（绞死） hung，hanged（绞死） 　　have，hast，has had，hadst had 　　hear heard heard 　　heave heaved，hove heaved，hove（水手用语）（水手用语） 　　hew hewed hewed，hewn 　　hide hid hidden（形容词）　hid 　　hit hit hit 　　hold held held 　　hurt hurt hurt 　　inlay inlaid inlaid 　　keep kept kept 　　kneel knelt knelt 　　knit knitted，knit knitted，knit 　　know knew known 　　lade laded laden （形容词）laded 　　lay laid laid 　　lead led led 　　lean leant（英），leaned leant（英），leaned 　　leap leapt，leaped leapt，leaped 　　learn learnt（英），learned learnt（英），learned 　　leave left left 　　lend lent lent 　　let let let 　　lie lay lain 　　light lighted，lit lighted，lit 　　load loaded loaded，laden（载有） 　　lose lost lost 　　make made made 　　mean meant meant 　　meet met met 　　melt melted melted（snow，butter） 　　molten（gold，glass） 　　misdeal misdealt misdealt 　　misgive misgave misgiven 　　mislay mislaid mislaid 　　mislead misled misled 　　mistake mistook mistaken 　　misunderstand misunderstood misunderstood 　　mow mowed mown（形容词）　mowed 　　outbid outbade，outbid outbidden，outbid 　　outdo outdid outdone 　　outgo outwent outgone 　　outgrow outgrew outgrown 　　outride outrode outridden 　　outrun outran outrun 　　outshine outshone outshone 　　outspread outspread outspread 　　outwear outwore outworn 　　overbear overbore overborne 　　overcast overcast overcast 　　overdraw overdrew overdrawn 　　overeat overate overeaten 　　overfeed overfed overfed 　　overgrow overgrew overgrown 　　overhang overhung overhung 　　overhear overheard overheard 　　overlay overlaid overlaid 　　overleap overleapt，overleapt， 　　overleaped overleaped 　　overlie overlay overlain 　　override overrode overridden 　　overrun overran overrun 　　oversee oversaw overseen 　　overset overset overset 　　overshoot overshot overshot 　　oversleep overslept overslept 　　overspread overspread overspread 　　overtake overtook overtaken 　　overthrow overthrew overthrown 　　partake partook partaken 　　pass passed passed，past（形容词） 　　pay paid paid 　　put put put 　　prove proved proved，proven 　　quit quitted，quit（美） quitted，quit（美） 　　read ［ri：d］ read［red］read ［red］ 　　rebuild rebuilt rebuilt 　　recast recast recast 　　relay relaid relaid 　　rend rent rent 　　repay repaid repaid 　　reset reset reset 　　retell retold retold 　　rid ridded，rid ridded，rid 　　ride rode ridden 　　ring rang，rung rung 　　rise rose risen 　　rive rived riven，rived 　　rot rotted rotted，rotten 　　run ran run 　　saw sawed sawn（形容词）sawed 　　say said said 　　see saw seen 　　seek sought sought 　　sell sold sold 　　send sent sent 　　set set set 　　sew sewed sewn（形容词）sewed 　　shake shook shaken 　　shave shaved shaved，shaven 　　shear sheared，shore shorn（形容词）sheared 　　shed shed shed 　　shine shone，shined shone，shined（擦亮） （擦亮） 　　ship shipped，shipt shipped，shipt 　　shoe shod shod 　　shoot shot shot 　　show showed shown（形容词）showed 　　shred shredded，shred shredded，shred 　　shrink shrank，shrunk shrunk，shrunken（形容词） 　　shrive shrove，shrived shriven，shrived 　　shut shut shut 　　sing sang，sung sung 　　sink sank，sunk sunk，sunken（形容词） 　　sit sat sat 　　slay slew slain 　　sleep slept slept 　　slide slid slid，slidden 　　sling slung slung 　　slink slunk slunk 　　slit slit slit 　　smell smelt（英），smelled smelt（英），smelled 　　smite smote，smit smitten，smit 　　sow sowed sown（形容词）sowed 　　speak spoke，spake spoken 　　speed sped，speeded sped，speeded 　　spell spelt（英），spelled spelt（英），spelled 　　spend spent spent 　　spill spilt（英），spilled spilt（英），spilled 　　spin spun，span spun 　　spit spat，spit spat，spit 　　split split split 　　spoil spoilt（英），spoiled spoilt（英），spoiled 　　spread spread spread 　　spring sprang sprung 　　stand stood stood 　　stave staved，stove staved，stove 　　steal stole stolen 　　stick stuck stuck 　　sting stung stung 　　stink stank，stunk stunk 　　stop stopped，stopped， 　　stopt（书面语） stopt（书面语） 　　strew strewed strewn（形容词）strewed 　　stride strode stridden 　　strike struck struck，stricken（形容词） 　　string strung strung 　　strip stripped， stripped， 　　stript（少见） stript（少见） 　　strive strove striven 　　sunburn sunburned， sunburned， 　　sunburnt sunburnt 　　swear swore，sware sworn 　　sweat sweat，sweated sweat， 　　sweatedsweep swept swept 　　swell swelled swollen 　　swim swam swum 　　swing swung swung 　　take took taken 　　teach taught taught 　　tear tore torn 　　tell told told 　　think thought thought 　　thrive throve，thrived thriven，thrived 　　throw threw thrown 　　thrust thrust thrust 　　tread trod trodden，trod 　　unbend unbent unbent（形容词） 　　unbind unbound unbound 　　underbid underbid underbidded，underbid 　　undergo underwent undergone 　　undersell undersold undersold 　　understand understood understood 　　undertake undertook undertaken 　　underwrite underwrote underwritten 　　undo undid undone 　　upset upset upset 　　wake waked（美），woke waked（美），woken，woke 　　waylay waylaid waylaid 　　wear wore worn 　　weave wove woven，wove 　　wed wedded，wed wedded， 　　wedweep wept wept 　　win won won 　　wind winded，wound winded， 　　woundwithdraw withdrew withdrawn 　　withhold withheld withheld 　　withstand withstood withstood 　　work worked，wrought worked，wrought （iron） 　　wring wrung wrung 　　write wrote，writ written，writ 　　注：PP1，PP2，PP3这些名称对一般的读者是不熟悉。像“现在时”，“过去时”，“过去分词”这些名称，虽然容易引起误会，但是所有语法书及字典几乎都使用。为此本书不得不在会书中也使用这些名称，使没看本章的读者也能理解。 　　C．动词的分类 　　680 动词可以分作两类：谓语动词（或称动词的限定形式）及非谓语动词（或称动词的非限定形式）。谓语动词只能用作动词，在句中充当谓语，它必须与主语在人称和数上一致，它是一个句子和一个从句必不可少的部分。例如：He knows me，John came yesterday afternoon。非谓语动词，不仅用作动词，还起形容词、副词或名词的作用，它无需与主语一致，也不是一个句子或从句必不可少的。例如：He is a businessman knowingmany politicians． knowing可起形容词作用，修饰 businessman这个名词。又如：He wants to go to the pictures。to go起名词作用，作及物动词wants的宾语。又如：Coming up to her，he bowed politely。coming起副词的作用，修饰动词 bowed。另外，一个句子或分句一般只需一个谓语动词（除非有由连词连接的更多个谓语动词），而非谓语动词可以不要，也可以有许多，如在Fighting to achieve independence requires all of ushaving patience—not only courage．中有一个谓语动词，三个非谓语动词。又如在 He denies having asked her to run awayfrom her family。中有一个谓语动词和两个非谓语动词。 　　681 谓语动词可以是一个词，如： He saw me．John spoke Spanish．也可以由几个词构成，通常有一个主要动词和一到三个（间或有四个）助动词，如：He will come．He may be killed．Wangmust have been cheated．非谓语动词也可以只有一个词，如：It started raining．有时由几个词构成，通常只有 have和 be这两个助动词，如：Having seen it，He can‘ t but believe．Torespect others means to be respected． Having been sent toprison is not a favourable record． 　　682 谓语动词可以用于陈述语气（Indicative Mood），表示某情况是事实，如：I know it．He came yesterday。也可以用于虚拟语气（Subjunctive Mood），表示某情况不肯定，或是与事实相反的假想情况，如：If I knew it，I would be safe（but I do notknow）．If he had come，he would have been arrested（ but hedid not come）． 　　683 陈述语气的动词有12钟时态，表示不同的动作时间和动作完成的不同程度。下面是动词write和be在12钟时态中的不同形式，说明它们如何在人称和数上与主语一致。He也代表she，it，a teacher，this boy及任何单数名词。They代表任何复数名词。 　　write及be在陈述语气12个时态中的形式 　　现在一般时 We（I，You，They）write．He writes．We are （I am，You are，He is）happy． 　　完成时 We（or I，You，They） have written．We have been happy．He has written．He has been happy． 　　进行时 We are（or I am，You are，They are，He is） writing． 　　完成进行时 We（or I，You，They）have　been writing． He has been　writing． 　　过去一般时 We（or I，You，They，He）wrote．We（or You，They）were happy． I（ or He） was　happy． 　　完成时 We（or I，You，They，He）had　written，had been happy． 　　进行时 We were（or I was，You were，They were，He was） writing． 　　完成进行时 We（or I，You，They，He）had　been writing． 　　将来一般时 We（or I，You，They，He）shall（or will） write，shall（or will） be happy．（The meaning is different between shall and will．） 　　完成时 We（or I） shall have written，shall have been happy．They（or He） will have written，will have been happy． 　　进行时 We（or I） shall be writing．You（or They，He） will be writing． 　　完成进行时（少用） 　　684 虚拟语气的动词也有12种时态，不仅表示不同时间及动作完成的不同程度，而且表示不同程度的怀疑。虚拟语气和陈述语气的形式几乎一样，但含义却不相同。因此在时态名称前要冠以“虚拟”二字，以示差别，如“虚拟现在”或“现在虚拟”，“虚拟过去完成”或“过去完成虚拟”。 　　write 及be在虚拟语气12时态中的形式 　　虚拟现在（一般）时 If he writes． If he be wise． 　　虚拟现在进行时 If he be writing． 　　虚拟现在完成时 If he have written．If he have been wise． 　　虚拟现在完成进行时 If he have been writing． 　　虚拟过去（一般）时 If he wrote．If he were wise． 　　虚拟过去进行时 If he were writing． 　　虚拟过去完成时 If he had written． If he had been wise． 　　虚拟过去完成进行时 If he had been writing． 　　虚拟将来（一般）时 If he would（ or should）write． 　　If hewould（or should）be wise． 　　虚拟将来进行时 If he would（or should） be writing． 　　虚拟将来完成时 If he would（or should） have written． 　　If he would（or should） have been wise． 　　虚拟将来完成进行时 If he would（or should） have been writ-ing． 　　和陈述语气的差别是：在虚拟一般时中，be用于各种人称，而不用is，am，are；第三人称单数主语后用不带-s词尾的动词（如 write，have）来代替带词尾-s的动词（如 writes，has）。在虚拟语气过去时中，即使在第三人称单数主语后也用were，而不用was。虽然时态总数有12个，但进行时及完成进行时态却很少使用。现在时态只是偶尔使用，也偏于书面体。因此常用的时态只有6个。 　　685 非谓语动词（亦称Verbals）可以是动名词、分词或不定式。它们表示的时间根据同句中谓语动词表示的时间来确定。因此对它们来说，所谓“现在”，“过去”，“将来”已不适用。通用的“现在分词”和“过去分词”不是很确切的名称，称作“主动分词”和“被动分词”似乎好一些。这些非谓语动词和谓语动词一样，也有4种形式，表示在谓语动词所表示的时间当中业已完成或正在进行的动作。关于这三类非谓语动词的各种形式，可参阅第12单元Ⅲ中谈“非谓语动词”的那一部分。 　　686 谓语和非谓语动词都有4个“体”，又名“动相”（Aspects）：简单体（Simple），起始体（Ingressive），终结体（Terminative）及反复体（Frequentative）。简单体表示在某一时间（不管短还是长）动作是完整的。我们使用的大部分动词都属这个体： 　　He spoke to me． Mary came the other day． 　　They build many houses． I know it． 　　起始体使我们注意动作的开始： 　　He began to cry． He became pale． 　　John caught a cold． I put on my dress． 　　He fell asleep． He ran mad． 　　终结体使我们注意动作的终结，常常意味着成功或失败： 　　He gave up hope． he found it out． 　　Stop crying． We finished playing． 　　反复体表示同一动作的多次重复： 　　The girls giggled The hen cackled． 　　He asked again and again． I tried and tried． 　　上面的例子所表示的“体”可由一个单一动词表示出来，也可由一动词结合另一词类表示出来。 　　687 不管是谓语动词还是非谓语动词，动词都可以是不及物动词、及物动词、双宾动词、系动词或宾补动词，这五类动词是根据它们是否跟有宾语或补语来决定。 　　本身意思完整的动词称为不及物动词（Intransitive Verbs），如：John came．Mary was playing．We dined at that restaurant yesterday． 　　表示动作由主语传到另一人或物的称为及物动词（Transitive Verbs），动作所传及的这个人或物称为宾语（Object），如：John saw a cat．Mary was playing basketball．We like Mary．这些动词告诉我们看见什么，玩什么及喜欢谁。 　　双宾动词（Dative Verbs）有两个宾语，第1个是表人宾语，亦称间接宾语（Indirect Object），第2个是表物宾语，亦称直接宾语（Direct Object），如：He gave me some books．I teach John French．I wrote his sister many letters． 　　系动词（Linking Verbs）都跟有一个主语的补语（Complement）。补语不同于宾语，不承受主语的动作，而是说明主语的特点，如：He is a miser．Mary seems lonesome．Our manager became thin． 　　宾补动词（Factitive Verbs）不仅跟有一个宾语，还跟有一个宾语的补语，说明宾语的特点，如：I call him a miser．I found Mary lonesome．Don’t put the manager out of temper． 　　上面所谈五类动词的情况可以概括为下面公式，从中还可清楚看出它们在句中的位置： 　　S＋IV 主语+不及物动词 　　S＋TV＋O 主语+及物动词+宾语 　　S＋DV＋IO＋DO 主语+双宾动词+间宾+直宾 　　S＋LV＋SC 主语+系动词+主语补语 　　S＋FV＋O＋OC 主语+宾补动词+宾语+宾补 　　宾语可以是任何相当于名词的东西，补语可以是任何相当于名词或相当于形容词的东西，但一个特定的动词只能跟一种东西（如名词）或几种东西（如形容词、介词短语及不定式）而已。这是一个非常有意思的问题，将在有关47种谓语类型的那个单元详细讨论。 　　688 最后一点，一个动词，不管是谓语动词还是非谓语动词，可以是主动语态或是被动语态。主动语态表示主语是动词所表示动作的执行者，如：I wrote these letters．Edison invented the electric lamp．Many people speak English．被动语态表示主语是动词所表示动作的承受者，如：These letters were written by me．The electric lamp was invented by Edison．English is spoken by many people．及物动词、双宾动词及宾补动词可以由主动语态改为被动语态。关于陈述语气、虚拟语气及非谓语动词的各种被动形式，详见第Ⅵ章“动词的两种语态”。 　　689 概论中所谈问题可概括为下表，从中可以看出动词有几种分类法： 　　Ⅱ．谓语动词 　　A．陈述语气 　　1．12种时态 　　690 陈述语气的动词有12种主要时态，表示不同时间的动作及动作完成的程度。它们是： 　　现在 过去 将来 　　一般时 一般时 一般时 　　进行时 进行时 进行时 　　完成时 完成时 完成时 　　完成进行时 完成进行时 完成进行时 　　a．一般现在时 　　691 形式： 　　I（or You，They，Those men）know．He knows（or doesn‘t know）． 　　I am（or You are，He is，John is，They are，Those men are） honest． 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men）can（or may，must，ought to，has to or have to，should，used to，need not，dare not）do it（or be there）． 　　692 一般现在时的用法： 　　1）表示反复发生的动作及人或物的一般特征：不指特定的时间。动作或特征可发生在任何时间，包括现在、过去和将来，表示动作及状态的动词以及助动词都可用于这个时态。 　　The sun rises in the east．（天文）（表动作动词） 　　Light goes faster than sound．（物理） 　　The durian grows in southeast Asia．（植物） 　　Tigers eat meat．（动物） 　　The stomach digests food．（生理学） 　　A rolling stone gathers no moss．（谚语） 　　He gets up early．I smoke．He goes to school． 　　I like coffee．（反复动作或习惯） 　　He sells rice．Mary teaches English．（职业） 　　You play the piano very well．He speaks Chinese fluently．He knows Japanese．（技能） 　　We respect old men．Children wear new clothes on New Year’s Day．They bow to each other when they meet．（风俗） 　　Man is selfish．（表状态动词） 　　This river looks pretty． 　　Two and two are four． 　　He seems cunning． 　　I have a dog and I love him． 　　Wealth and fame mean nothing to me． 　　This book contains ten stories． 　　They may smoke．They must not smoke．（助动词） 　　You must see the lawyer．You need not see the lawyar． 　　He can write poetry．He cannot write poetry． 　　He may be honest．He cannot be honest． 　　这样用时，一般现在时常和表示频度的副词或副词短语一起用，如never，hardly，scarcely，rarely，seldom，sometimes，often，frequently，generally，always；yearly，quarterly，monthly，daily；twice a year，five times a week，on alternate days． 　　Thomas never smiles． 　　He seldom dances． 　　He goes to school five days a week． 　　693 2）表示未来计划，将来时间或明确说出，或是对方知道的： 　　I go（＝am to go）to Hong Kong next June． 　　He starts next week． 　　We leave very soon． 　　He gets his money tomorrow morning． 　　He gives a party in three days． 　　He retires next year． 　　We move next month． 　　We dine on August 2． 　　We play football this afternoon． 　　When does the ship sail？ 　　When does the meeting take place？ 　　When do we part？ 　　How long does he stay（or remain）？ 　　Do you go with him？ 　　He leaves for Singapore，and gets back soon． 　　They meet again at supper． 　　694 3）在从句中表示未来动作，这时主句已使用一个将来时态：Anyone that comes（形容词从句）will be warmly welcomed． 　　I will reward the person who finds my dog． 　　She won‘t forgive anyone who steals flowers in her garden． 　　The doctor will first attend the patient who comes first． 　　This new government will welcome whoever are experts． 　　His success will depend upon how he starts the plan．（名词从句） 　　A quarrel will arise as to who rules the country． 　　I will keep silence even though everyone asks me about it（副词从句）． 　　I will tell you the story while you and I are taking a walk． 　　He will learn English until he thoroughly masters it． 　　I will speak to him when I see him next Sunday or Monday． 　　I will get everything ready before my boss Dr．J comes back． 　　上面这类句子的从句中，一般不使用助动词shall和will，如表示“愿意”，从句中也可以用will： 　　If he will（=is willing to）send the money，it will save trouble．You will succeed if you will（＝are willing to）try． 　　即使在主句中，will或shall有时也可以不出现： 　　I must not go although the weather is fine． 　　I tell you the story while we are taking a walk． 　　If you refuse，I am ruined． 　　If you laugh，the world laughs with you． 　　695 4）表示命令、请求、恳求等，这时主语you通常都不说出：Come here．（命令） 　　Open the door． 　　Do open the door．（恳求） 　　“May I open the door？”“Do．” 　　Do not open the door．（禁止） 　　Just open the door．（亲切的要求） 　　Open the door please．（客气的请求） 　　Be quick，can you？（这里要用be代替are） 　　Don’t be here after nine． 　　Be a nice boy！ 　　Please do be quick． 　　Let him come here．（用let时表示对第三人的命令或请求） 　　Let everybody mind his own business． 　　Let me do it． 　　有时you可以使用，以引起对方的注意： 　　You mind your own business！ 　　You just ask him． 　　注：为了方便，这里也把祈使语气的句子列为一般现在时的一种用法。详细情况将在有关祈使语气的那一章再谈。 　　696 5）描绘或讲述正当说话时发生的动作： 　　I hand you this letter． 　　I come to see you． 　　John arrives home now．He sees his wife．She cries bitterly，but he does not seem to recognize her．（在看电影时父亲向孩子这样讲电影情节） 　　Now the band is playing and the King enters the hall．The spectators raise a cheer．He stops，greets the spectators and then takes his seat．（广播人员现场报导说话时发生的情况） 　　As I（or We）write（=At the time of writing），the war hasbroken out．（记者的报导） 　　697 6）描述想像的将来或过去发生的情况，使故事显得栩栩如生，就仿佛在眼前发生似的。现在进行时和现在完成时也可在此使用。这种用法可以称作戏剧式的现在时（Dramatic Pre sent）： 　　Now imagine yourself in a schoolroom，It is large and dingy．The pupils sit on long benches．They recite their lessons．How hard they work！（想像的情况） 　　The slaughtered citizens lie everywhere，and the tyrant is tri- umphing in their miseries．（先知预言将来发生的情况） 　　The enemy broke（过去时）in．They destroyed（过去时）everything they encountered（过去时）．All the houses are（现在时）set on fire．Husbands，who have killed their wives，kill themselves．（过去情况，注意时态突然由过去转到现在。） 　　As soon as I arrive at the inn，two strangers come and greet me，and ark me if I have murdered a woman．（过去情况口语体） 　　698 7）在图片、照片、连环画和卡通片的解说词中： 　　David plays tennis with Mary． 　　Hundreds of students demonstrate． 　　Something is wrong with my policy？ 　　699 8）在剧本中描写角色的动作： 　　Bob：Hello！（He stands up and greets Helen．） 　　Helen：Hello，Bob！（As soon as she sees Jimmy，who sits at a distance，she wishes to turn back，but is too late to．） 　　700 9）在口语中代替现在完成时，hear和read这类动词常可这样用： 　　My father writes（=has written）that he will return home next month． 　　I hear（=have heard）that… 　　I find（or see）that… 　　I am（＝have been）informed that… 　　I learn（or understand，gather）that… 　　I am told that… 　　He reads in the papers that… 　　He tells me that… 　　The Bible says that… 　　It says in the Bible that… 　　The paper says that… 　　但是：A broadcast said this morning that… 　　在不规范英语中，有人说says I，says Mary，says they等，来代替I said，Mary said，they said等。 　　701 10）表示一个作家的过去动作或讲话，到现在还继续有效： 　　Darwin originates the theory of evolution and differs from the Bible on the creation of the world． 　　Confucius regards sex as human． 　　Nietzsche advocates the doctrine of will to Power． 　　702 11）在here，there后面使用： 　　Here comes Adam．（但要说Adam is coming．） 　　There goes the bus．（但是：The bus is going there．） 　　703 12）用在题目或标题中，不管讲的情况是什么时候发生的（这时用过去时讲过去情况也是可以的）： 　　“The Sleeper Awakes” 　　“I Meet Many People” 　　“Emily is Gone” 　　“Mamma Spanks Me” 　　“Premier Resigns” 　　“Fifty Are Killed in an Aircraft Crash” 　　704 13）用在电影、剧本等故事情节或解说词中： 　　Hamlet decides to revenge his father，but hesitates to kill his enemy，etc． 　　The tiger dashes on Wu Sung，but he dodges aside，etc． 　　The dialogue between Romeo and Juliet when they meet on the balcony is very beautiful． 　　b．现在进行时 　　705 形式： 　　I am（or You are，He is，John is，They are，Those men are） coming． 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men）may（or cannot，must，should）be making progress in English． 　　706 现在进行时的用法： 　　1）表示讲话时正在发生的动作： 　　常可和表示现在时间的副词及副词短语一起用，如today，this week，this term，this year，this century等。但now，this moment，at the present moment这类词常不说出，除非要和表示时间的词作对比。另外注意，this year及this century可指“现在”，而yesterday，last week，two weeks or two days ago只能指“过去”。 　　He teaches English（职业）．He is teaching English（现在动作）． 　　I play football（爱好）．I am playing football（现在动作）． 　　He is now gambling（现在动作）as he usually does（=gambles）（习惯）． 　　The are discussing（现在动作）this matter，though they rarely agree（习惯）． 　　He is coming now．（有表示现在时间状语） 　　He is spending his holiday at the seaside this summer． 　　He is writing a letter at the moment，I believe． 　　He is living in the country this year． 　　He must be coming now．（和助动词一起用，表示猜想的情况。） 　　He may be spending his holiday． 　　He cannot be waiting for us． 　　He ought to be working this moment． 　　表示转瞬即逝的动作的动词，如果用于进行时，可表示尚未完成的动作： 　　He is dying．（He has not yet died，but he‘ll die very soon．） 　　The flower is opening．（It has not yet opened fully，but it will open fully very soon．） 　　The war is ending． 　　They are winning，and their enemy is losing． 　　I am finishing my supper． 　　707 有些动词，即使表示现在的动作，也只能用一般现在时，而不用现在进行时： 　　I am looking at the sky，and I see（不要用am seeing）a strange star．（在see，hear，feel，taste，smell等前可加can，could表示继续的动作） 　　He is listening to the radio，and he hears（不要用is hearing）the speech of the president． 　　He is telling me the story，but I do not believe（不要说am not believing）it． 　　有些动词，如see，hear，believe和look，listen，tell不同，是一种“没有进行时的动词”，或者说是“表示持续状态的动词”，不同于表示动作的动词。它们有些可以表示一种无意愿的心理状态或感觉，如： 　　see，hear，find，smell，notice，perceive；know，think （that…），doubt，believe，judge，forget，remember，fancy，imagine，suppose（that…），presume，understand，recognize，deem，esteem，regard，consider；love，affect，sympathize，worship，adore，hope，dare，miss，fear，apprehend，hate，abhor，loathe，detest，despise，don’t mind，regard，value，respect，revere，esteem；want，like，care（for），desire，long，prefer，need，require，dislike，wish；mean，say． 　　另有一些表示状态（而不是动作），如： 　　be，seem，appear，prove，turn out，chance，happen，fail，matter，consist of，contain，hold，have，possess，own，suit，fit，belong，constitute，concern，signify，mean，resemble，equal，differ，result，depend，suffice，exist，taste，smell，weigh，cost，admit，need，show． 　　但是这些动词中有些可有两个或多个意思，不仅可表示状态，也可以表示动作，因此不仅可用于一般现在时，也可用于现在进行时： 　　状态 动作 　　He sees Mary coming． He is seeing（=is interviewing）someone． 　　He hears the dog bark． He is hearing（＝is judging）a case． 　　He feels sad． He is feeling（＝is groping）for matches． 　　He hates me． He is hating（=showing visible or audible signs of hating）me． 　　He desires to see me． He is desiring（=cherishing　the desire）to see me． 　　He smells trouble． He is smelling the milk． 　　I think that it is easy． I am thinking about（＝is　considering）it． 　　I don‘t mind it． I am minding the baby． 　　He does not care for wine． He is caring for his child． 　　He appears honest． He is appearing on the stage． 　　He has （=owns）a house． He is having（partaking of，enjoying）his lunch，a good　time． 　　This policy has a bad result． This policy is having（is　producing）a bad result． 　　The case holds 20 cigarettes． He is holding an umbrella． 　　这些表状态的动词，也可和always，for ever，constantly一起，用于进行时，表示说话人不耐烦的情绪： 　　He is always seeing the ghost． 　　I am for ever forgetting what I have to do． 　　He is constantly thinking that he is a sick man． 　　在口语中这类动词还可用于进行时，以强调现在时刻： 　　I am feeling cold． 　　I am just thinking you might be fooling me． 　　He is being very wise（or polite，honest）（=He is behaving very wisely，politely or honestly now）． 　　（目前的表现和经常的性格形成对比） 　　You are just being extravagant（=spending extravagantly）． 　　He is being very angry（or kind，friendly）．（Acting affectedly） 　　Are you supposing you are right？ 　　I am hoping to hear（or am looking forward to hearing）from you soon． 　　He is liking music．（He is beginning to like music now．） 　　Are you（still） loving her？ 　　He is forgetting his German．（He is beginning to forget it．） 　　I am remembering your advice． 　　He is hating her because she has talked with another boy． 　　在正常情况下，表状态的动词，不能用于一般进行时、过去进行时、将来进行时及完成进行时。我们从不说： 　　He was hearing a dog bark． 　　They will be having a house． 　　This theory will be remaining important to the world． 　　I have been knowing him for years． 　　This had been belonging to us． 　　708 2）表示最近刚开始，不久将结束，但讲话时不一定在进行的动作： 　　They are building a bridge across the river． 　　He is writing a novel 　　My mother is making dresses for Christmas． 　　John is taking medicine． 　　709 3）在口语中，可用来表示主语计划将做的事情，这时常有表示不久将来的状语配合，但有时这类状语也会省略。这种用法 　　和一般现在时表示未来计划的用法相似，但不那么独断而更 　　委婉。所用动词必须表示动作而不是状态，主语必须是人： 　　He is coming（or going，leaving，starting，sailing） in a week． 　　Is your brother departing（or returning） tomorrow？ 　　Let me know if you are coming． 　　Is Wang killing the pig next week？ 　　I am speaking at the meeting next Tuesday． 　　We are having a baby next month． 　　He is buying a new car sometime this week． 　　比较： 　　I am going（=plan）to ask him． I am going（＝am certain）to die very soon． 　　He is going（＝plans） to buy a car．I think it is going （=is certain） to rain． 　　但是 It（不是 a person） is raining tomorrow．是错误的，因为 主语不是指人。 　　这种进行时如和must，should等助动词连用，可表示即将发生的动作： 　　I（or You） must be going now． 　　We ought to be starting work． 　　I have to be dressing for the party． 　　在下面句子中，to be doing用在一个表示愿望的动词后，也有同样的意思，表示即将做的事： 　　He wants to be sending the letter． 　　I long to be calling on my aunt． 　　He resolves to be finishing his work． 　　He is impatient to be talking with you． 　　I am eager to be drinking something． 　　710 4）在和一个表示频度的状语一起用时，现在进行时也可以表示反复发生或习惯性的动作： 　　I am taking the medicine three times a day．（In the nearest past and nearest future） 　　How often is he attending the class？ 　　He is generally returning home at eight． 　　We are playing bridge all through the month． 　　I am eating only vegetables and fruits during the summer． 　　还可和always或类似的副词一起用，带有感情色彩，表示特点而不是动作： 　　He is constantly quarrelling（＝has the habit of quarrelling，is addicted to quarrelling，is quarrelsome）． 　　She is always laughing． 　　He is constantly（or forever，usually，perpetually，every day）worrying about her health． 　　Smokers always drink（＝Smokers are drinkers）． 　　Smokers are always drinking（=Smokers drink too much）． 　　He always dreams of gold（=He dreams of gold whenever he dreams）． 　　He is always dreaming of gold（=He dreams of gold too frequently）． 　　一般时表示事实，进行时带有夸张的意味，带有感情色彩，表示不高兴等情绪。 　　有时两个习惯性动作在同一时间发生且延续同样长时间，也可用进行时： 　　Mary is washing in the bathroom（all the） while （or when，as） 　　John is getting Mary’s breakfast． 　　Every Sunday when he is not working，he is fooling around． 　　同样是两个习惯性动作，由一般时表示的动作，持续的时间要短一些，另外，主句要比从句重要一些： 　　While John is working，Mary makes tea． 　　John is working when Mary makes tea． 　　The newsboy comes when we are taking breakfast． 　　We are taking breakfast when the newsboy comes． 　　711 5）表示某种程度的情绪时，707节列出的动词也可用于进行时： 　　Mary is missing John terribly．（陈述句） 　　We are wondering if you can join us． 　　I am supposing everything is OK． 　　How are you liking your new house？（问句） 　　Are you fearing to see her？ 　　What a crazy thing you are wishing to do！（感叹句） 　　How fast he is forgetting his shame！ 　　She is talking，complaining，grumbling，cursing all the time．（重复） 　　Don‘t be grumbling．（祈使句） 　　712 6）有时可用来强调动作的重要性： 　　We are losing our friends． 　　We are now waiting to be killed． 　　He is playing us a trick． 　　He is wasting time and money． 　　This is killing me． 　　We are simply（or only，merely，but）defending our own ben-efit． 　　713 7）可以将两个动作加以对比： 　　While she is weeping，he is laughing． 　　We are fighting，we are not standing idle． 　　He is sympathizing with you，but not speaking ill of anyone． 　　714 8）说明两个动作是同一动作： 　　If（or when） he goes to the battlefield，he is going to a picnic．He who ill－treats animals is doing a foolish thing． 　　In contributing food or clothing，you are saving their lives． 　　715 9）可用来表示一个被动的动作。这个时态在过去比今天用的带being的形式要多一些，而且它常可用在while引起的从句中： 　　Nothing is doing（=is being done）． 　　Our breakfast is making（=is being made） ready． 　　A house is building on the opposite side． 　　A large debt is owing him． 　　The book is printing． 　　We do something while it is drying（=is being dried）．（orgathering，performing，planning，displaying，practising，preparing，developing，constructing，compiling，printing，etc．） 　　（比较过去时及将来时的类似用法： Nothing was doing． 　　Nothing will be doing． Our breakfast was making ready．Our breakfast will be making ready．） 　　716 10）表示特点而不是动作。这时带-ing词尾的动词变成了形容词，而be成了一个完全的动词，不再是助动词了。 　　He is lacking（=deficient） in courage． 　　Something is wanting（or missing）（=absent）． 　　He is deserving（=worthy）of sympathy． 　　His dress is not becoming（or befitting）（=suitable） to his po－sition． 　　His reply is disappointing． 　　His speech is so boring． 　　The patient is unconscious and groaning． 　　717 有些词组可用来代替进行时： 　　They are duck-shooting，holiday-making，pleasure-seeking，proof-reading，tiger－hunting，wool-gathering，（＝are shooting ducks，are making holiday，etc．） 　　He sits reading every morning． 　　We have to stand eating our meal． 　　He often lies singing． 　　He is sitting reading newspapers． 　　We are standing eating our meal． 　　He is lying singing Japanese songs． 　　The butterflies went flying around． 　　The groceries fell splattering on the sidewalk． 　　He keeps asking this problem． 　　I remain studying in college． 　　He seems living（但seems to live更普通些）here． 　　He is alive（or asleep）（=is living or sleeping）． 　　It is astir（＝is stirring）（or aglow，ablaze）． 　　He is at work（＝is working）（or at study，at rest，at play）． 　　The troops are on the march（＝are marching）（or on the move，on the watch）． 　　It is on the rise（=is rising）（or on the decline，on the advance，on the flow，on the ebb，on the increase，on the turn）． 　　It is in operation（=is operating）（or in progress，in motion）． 　　He is in the act of stealing（=is stealing）it（or in the act of running away，etc．）． 　　She is busy（or engaged，employed） in cooking food．（=She is cooking food．） 　　He is all of a tremble（=is trembling）（or all in a tremble）． 　　The bridge is in process of construction（＝is being constructed）． 　　（有被动意义） 　　The problem is in course of discussion． 　　Specialists are in demand（or in request） in this area． 　　He is under treatment（=is being treated）（or under protection，under investigation）． 　　This demand is under consideration（or under discussion）． 　　The house is under repair． 　　c．现在完成时 　　718 形式： 　　We（or you，They，Those men）have seen it． 　　He（or John） has seen it. 　　We have been here ． 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men）may （or must，ought to，cannot） have done it （or have been there）． 　　719 现在完成时用法： 　　1）表示过去已完成动作对现在所产生的后果（一般过去时只讲过去的动作，不谈现在的情况）。 　　试比较下面各对句子： 　　在报导新闻时，英国人多用现在完成时，美国人爱用一般过去时： 　　There has been a riot．（英） There was a riot．（美） 　　China has won the prize .（英） China won the prize.（美） 　　Jim has had an accident．（英） Jim had an accident．（美） 　　720 2）表示过去完成的动作对现在应有的后果（不一定是现实后果）： 　　Oh！Johnny！ You have just taken a bath（= You should be clean），but how come you get so dirty？ 　　He has done his best（= He should succeed ），but he has bad luck． 　　Jim has been in China many years（= He should know Chi-nese），but he does not know Chinese． 　　721 3）充当联系过去和现在的桥梁： 　　He was sleepless many nights． He has been very tired and can’tconcentrate at all． So he decides not to go to the office．（过去—现在完成—现在—现在） 　　He decides not to go to the office，for he has been very tired．Hewas sleepless many nights．The doctor advised him to take more rest，but he did not listen to him．（现在—现在完成—过去—过去等等） 　　He wrote many novels. He has been famous in this country．Heis now teaching korean literature in college．He can tall youeverything about korea． 　　（过去—现在完成—现在—现在等等） 　　He is teaching Korean literature in college．He has been famousin this country ．He wrote many novels during the world war． 　　He had a very hard time when he was young．（现在—现在完成—过去—过去等等） 　　722 4）表示动作的完成，并用它来和进行时表示的未完成动作进行对比： 　　Everything in the world is changing or has changed，is passingor has passed，is reviving or has revived． 　　723 5）和频度状语一道表示从过去某时到现在动作发生的次数： 　　I have never（or not yet，hardly ever，seldom，rarely，occa-sionally，sometimes，often，frequently，always） seen him inthe office． 　　The members have met once. （yearly or once a year，weekly oronce a week，daily or every day ，twice a week，from time totime，once in a while）． 　　You have been out every time I have come．（表示频度的状语从句） 　　724 6）和“此时”的时间状语一道，表示“此时”未完成前的动作： 　　I have spent my vacation this year．（That is，I have alreadyspent the vacation I am to spend this year．） 　　His sister has written the letter today．（The letter is to be writ-ten today and she has written it．） 　　I have taken lunch with John this week．（It has been arrangedthat I should take lunch with John once a week．） 　　I have met many people this morning（or this summer）．（说这话时仍然是早晨或夏天，如果说 I met many people this morning［or this summer］．则表示此刻已不是早晨或夏天。） 　　725 7）和一个表示时间长度的状语一道，表示一个由过去开始到说话时仍在继续的动作： 　　He has studied since 1951．（使用的动词应能表示一个可以持续的动作。介词since的宾语必须是一个表示某一点时间的名词或是一个表示短暂动作的名词。） 　　He has waited here since 8 p．m． 　　He has grown more and more serious since his graduation from the college． 　　He has never smiled since the loss of his wife． 　　He has been very sad since his father died．（在 since引起的从句中，动词大多表示一个短暂的动作，而且用一般过去时，如动词 died。） 　　He has known many new friends since he left school． 　　It is （只有在这种结构中可用 is代替 has been） 18 years since she died． 　　It is a long time since we became friends． 　　He has learned many things since he was （=became） interestedin science．（was本来表示持续情况，但这里用作一个表示短暂动作的动词。） 　　He has been very busy since he lived（＝began to live）intown． 　　I have been treated by eight doctors since I have been ill．（偶尔在since引起的从句中可用现在完成时） 　　I have seen many things since I have lived here． 　　He has lived happily（for） ten years．（介词for的宾语必须表示一段时间，for有时可以省略。） 　　I have taught Japanese（for） two months． 　　He has kept silent during（=for） the last two years. 　　I have eaten nothing during the last five days（or my ill-ness）． 　　He has lost（instantaneous） his key for six days．（这个句子不太好。因为丢失钥匙只需一会儿，不需要6天，表示短暂动作的动词不能和表示长段时间的状语一起用。但有些作家却不遵守这条规律。） 　　这两句也是不好的： 　　He has left for Europe for these ten days． 　　I have arrived here for two months． 　　我们应当说： 　　He lost his key six days ago. 　　He left for Europe ten days ago．或 He has sailed（延续动作）for Europe these ten days． 　　I arrived here two months ago．或 I have been（or stayed）（延续状态） here for two months． 　　He has been dead ten ，years ago．（有时有人在用带 ago状语的同时用现在完成时，但这种用法不宜鼓励，下面句子也如此。） 　　The door has been locked a long time ago． 　　He is dead ten years（ago）．（偶尔有人以is或are代替现在完成时） 　　The door is locked a long time（since）． 　　除了since，for和during引起的状语外，还有一些其他状语可以表示一段时间，并可与现在完成时一道用： 　　I have seen him before（or lately，recently，of late）．He has already begun，school，but his elder brother has not yetbeen ready for it． 　　Have you ever seen a camel？ I have never seen any． 　　I have just seen John． 　　So far（or As yet，Up to now，Until now，Until this time，Thus far，Up to the present moment），he has not（or never）done anything for it．（这些状语多用在否定句中） 　　So far（or As yet，etc．） he has paid me only（or no more than）ten percent of his debt． 　　但表示一段时间的状语，并不总是说明动作一直持续到说话的这一刻： 　　He is now in Tokyo and he has been in Indonesia for ten years. 　　（He is not in Indonesia now） 　　It is raining again． It has been fine only two days． 　　Mr．Watanabe is now a rich man，though he has had a hard timefor many years． 　　726 8）在和can，may，must等助动词一起用时，现在完成时可以表示一个过去的动作，或者一个猜想已发生的动作，这时可以和一个表示过去时间的状语一起用： 　　He may have said so．（=I think [or thought] hesaid so = Heprobably said so．） 　　He must have lived in England．（= It is［or was］ certainthat he lived in England．） 　　Can he have lived in England？（＝ Is［or was］ it possiblethat he lived in England？） 　　He cannot have lived in England．（＝ It is［or was］impossi-ble that he lived in England．） 　　He will（=may） have given up his plan． 　　He may have met with an accident yesterday．（=It is［or was］probable that he met with an accident yesterday．） 　　He cannot have left last Sunday. 　　John must have learned judo when he was young． 　　不定式的完成形式也可以表示一个过去的动作，并和一个表示过去的时间状语一道用，尽管谓语动词是现在时： 　　He is thought to have met with an accident yesterday ．（= It isthought that he met with an accident yesterday．） 　　He is said to have resigned last Sunday．（＝It is said that heresigned last Sunday．） 　　He seems to have died years ago． 　　在其他情况下现在完成时不能和一个表示过去时间的状语一道用。在下面的错句中，现在完成时都应改为一般过去时： 　　I have seen Mary yesterday．（ Saw should be used instead ofhave seen．） 　　Have you written to her last Sunday？（Did you write…？） 　　He has begun the study of Japanese four years ago． 　　John has bought this curio in 1960． 　　They have got married when they were in Cambodia。 　　When have you seen her？ 　　What time has the baby been born？ 　　727 9）还可在时间、条件及让步状语从句中代替将来完成时（可参阅694节）： 　　He will get married as soon as he has （代替will have）beengraduated． 　　I will call on you if I have（代替 shall have） finished my workby eleven tomorrow． 　　I shall be unable to leave even though I have（代替 shall have）done my work by 6 p．m． 　　728 10）还可用来表示一个由一般现在时表示的反复性动作前业已完成的另一反复发生的动作（这一动作在过去、现在、将来都可以发生）： 　　The sun has risen（由现在完成时表示的反复发生的动作） 　　When he getS（由一般现在时表示的在前面动作之后发生的另一反复发生的动作） up at eight in the morning. 　　His family have taken，lunch when he arrives home at two． 　　He gets up at eight in the morning，and the sun has risen． 　　He arrives home at two； his family have taken lunch． 　　729 11）Have gone和have been有不同意思，从下面句子中可以看出： 　　He has gone to Singapore．（He is now in Singapore．） 　　He has been to Singapore．（But he is not there now ．） 　　He has been in Singapore.（He has stayed in Singapore，buthas left it now．） 　　I have been（不能用 gone） to Japan twice. 　　I have been（不能用 gone） there many times. 　　“Where is John？”“He has gone（不能用 been） to the exhibi-tion. 　　“ Where have you been （不能用gone）？”“I have been（不能用 gone） to see my uncle． 　　730 12） Have got 表示“有”： 　　I have got a good dog. 　　What have you got ？ 　　He said he had got a good dog．（如果主要动词为 said，hadgot，用在间接引语中。） 　　He thought he had got a lot experience， 　　但在下面句子中不宜用 have got，而需用 have： 　　I will（or shall，may，must） have many friends．（在助动词后不能用have got表示“有”） 　　Do you have a good dictionary？ 　　He has dinner at eight．We have a hard time. 　　（Have got 除表示“有”这个意思外，不再用于其他意思。）731 13）有时可用 be代替have，这时主要动词起形容词作用，表示一种状态： 　　He is gone（= away），come（＝here），returned（= back）from his travels． He is just arrived． 　　Be gone． Don‘t be gone more than one hour． 　　He is gone there two days． He is always gone． 　　Are you prepared （= ready） to quarrel with her？ 　　They are met （= together） again. 　　The moon is risen（=up）． 　　It is fallen（or sunken，vanished）． 　　He is got into bed． 　　John is terribly changed （or altered） this year． 　　I am done（or finished） with human beings． 　　He is descended from noble ancestors． 　　I am determined（or resolved） to resign． 　　Run，walk，march，fly，wander，advance，pass，set out，re-tire，enlist，dress，agree，mount偶尔可以这样用。 　　d．现在完成进行时 　　732 形式： 　　I have （or You have，He has，John has，They have，Those menhave） been studying． 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men） may（or must，cannot）have been playing tennis． 　　733 现在完成进行时的用法： 　　1）和现在完成时一样，现在完成进行时可以表示一个由过去某时开始一直持续到现在的动作，常和一个表示一段时间的状语一道用（可参阅725节）： 　　I have been learning English for two，years.（I am still learningnow．） 　　John has been teaching for 20 days．（He is still teaching．）They have been working since early morning． 　　He has been staying with his uncle during the past two months．I have been waiting all the morning（or this half hour）．表示暂时性的动作用完成进行时较好，表示长时期的动作时，用完成时较好： 　　I have lived here all my life． 　　We have developed our coundtry for two centuries. 　　2）和现在完成时一样，这个时态也可表示一个过去的动作对现在的影响： 　　I have been attending to many matters．（I am feeling tirednow．） 　　I have been telling him not to be a fool．（He should be cleverernow．） 　　734 3）但是它有现在完成时不具有的某些特殊含义。它可以表示：a）动作仍在继续： 　　They have been discussing it．（They have not yet finisheddiscussing it．） 　　I have been reading this novel. 　　b）有某种企图： 　　He has been telling me．（He has tried to tell me．）He has been playing me a dirty trick． 　　c）尝试但未成功： 　　He has been advising me（But he does not succeed，I don’tbelieve．） 　　d）最近的动作： 　　He has been drinking with his friend．（He drank not longago．） 　　They have（just） been talking about this subject．（可加可不加just） 　　e）反复和逐渐的动作： 　　I have been telling him．（I have told him many times.） 　　He has been losing his influence．（He has lost his influencegradually．） 　　f）感情色彩： 　　What have you been doing all this week？（不耐烦） 　　You have been deceiving me．（生气） 　　You have been giving me everything．（感激） 　　735 但要注意： 　　1）如果动词表示状态而不表示动作，应用现在完成时，而不用现在完成进行时： 　　I have known him for years.（不要用 I have been knowing…） 　　John has loved Mary since he was ten． 　　He has been here two days. 　　The property has belonged to my uncle during the last ten years． 　　2）在否定句中一般用现在完成时而不用现在完成进行时： 　　I have not learned（而不说 have not been learning） English fortwo years。 　　He has never seen a man like John． 　　He has hardly met a European in the street． 　　I hare received no assistance from my friend． 　　但有时也可用现在完成进行时： 　　I haven‘t been feeling well recently． 　　She hasn’t been working here long． 　　e．一般过去时 　　736 形式： 　　I（or You，He，John，It，They，Those men）came. 　　I was（or You were，He was ，It was，They were，Those menwerr）here． 　　737 一般过去时的用法： 　　1）表示过去发生的动作，过去时间可以由状语表示出来，也可由上下文及说话场合表示出来： 　　At five o‘clock（or As soon as he received the telegram），hedrove to the station． 　　He turned out the light at midnght（or when everybody wentto bed.） 　　Did you go swimming yesterday？” “NO．I was very ill（时间已由问句表示出来）．” 　　“ Why did you not attend the meeting？”“Because my wife gavebirth to a baby．”（谈话双方都清楚动作发生的时间） 　　738 2）表示过去反复发生的或习惯性的动作，可有表示频度的状语，也可以没有： 　　He took a walk every morning． 　　I swam in the evening． 　　Mary learned cooking twice a week ． 　　John seldom wrote to me． 　　John lived in Calcutta． 　　Nobody taught Japanese in this city． 　　He used to（表示过去习惯） drink coffee at night．（used to相当于一个助动词） 　　也可表示过去的状态： 　　He is not so happy as he was． 　　China is not what she was （or used to be）． 　　He worked much harder formerly than he works now． 　　739 3）可用在said，reported等后面的间接引语中，代替一般现在时： 　　He said，“I am very tired．”＝ He said that he was very tired．He exclaimed，“What a pity it is ！”＝He exclaimed what a pityit was． 　　但在口语中一般现在时仍可以用，特别在有一个表示未来时间的状语时： 　　I said I am free next Sunday． 　　I knew he comes tomorrow（or in three days，next week）．还有一些情况，间接引语中的一般现在时可以保持不变，如： 　　I said，“ I must go．”＝I said I must go． 　　He said，“I ought to do it．”= He said he ought to do it．He said God be thanked． 　　He said God forbid that he should ill-treat anyone． 　　He said thank Heaven he was well again． 　　但在下面情况下，从句中的谓语应用一般过去时： 　　He thought he could defeat me.（＝ Now he knows he can’t．）（从句中的设想证明是错误的） 　　I thought he was（or had been） a scholar．（ Now I see he isnot．） 　　I thought you knew it． 　　We did not know he was a cheat．（＝ Now we know he is．）I didn‘t quite realize that he was a great，great pianist．（=Now I realize he is．） 　　The ancients said （or imagined） the sun moved round theearth．（= Now they prove wrong） 　　I knew he was a simpleton（= Now we see that he is）（从句中的设想证明是对的） 　　在宾语从句中，如果主句谓语为过去时，要用would代替will： 　　I knew Wang would not accept this dirty money. 　　I forgot to tell you that you would get into trouble． 　　740 4）可用在表示时间、条件的状语从句中，表示一个从过去看来将发生的情况； 　　He promised to give me five dollars when he got his pay． 　　He said he would reward me if I worked hard． 　　We knew Dad would punish us unless we behaved． 　　741 5）还可用来表示过去计划要做的事，特别是当它有一个表示未来时间的状语时（可参阅693节）： 　　He started（=was to start） at seven the following day．（比较：He starts at seven tomorrow.） 　　He left the next week．（比较： He leaves next week．）They returned in ten days． 　　742 6）还可在对话中用来重复对方刚提这的事： 　　A：His name is Mauling． B： What was his name（= What didyou say his name was ）？ 　　A：Put it under the desk． B：（Talks about something else，andthen） Where was I to put it？ 　　也可用在比较客气的话中，来代替一般现在时（并不是谈过去情况，而是谈现在情况）： 　　Was your father in？ I was hoping he was free this evening． 　　Did you want it？ I was thinking you might like it． 　　“I wondered if he could come．”“I was wondering，too．” 　　f．过去进行时 　　743 形式： 　　I was （or You were，He was，John was ，It was，They were，Thosemen were） coming． 　　744 过去进行时的用法： 　　1）表示过去某段时间中正在进行或一直在进行的动作，一般要 　　有表示过去时间的状语，除非时间关系很明显： 　　Yesterday at 10 p．m． I was dancing．（ 10点以前或以后都可能在跳舞） 　　Ten days ago we were enjoying our holiday．（We enjoyed it allthe time or almost all day．） 　　I was travelling during the week（＝ every day during the sevendays）． 　　I was learning Japanese in those months． 　　I was cooking yesterday（=all yesterday or most of the day）． 　　但下面的句子是不对的： 　　The two brothers were fighting last month．（应当用 fought，因为他们不可能整个月都在打架。） 　　I was driving two miles to my uncle’s yesterday．（因为开两英里车用不了昨天一天，应改为drove。） 　　不过，They were fighting last night when I called on their father．是正确的。 　　745 2）可用来表示由过去某时持续到另一时间的过去动作： 　　He was staying here between 1950 and 1959. 　　Between two and four o‘clock I was playing basketball. 　　We were working from 8 a． m． to（or till） 12a． m． 　　From January to March I was travelling in Europe． 　　但在这种情况下也可以用一般过去时： 　　He studied chemical engineering between 1950 and 1954． 　　He worked from morning till night yesterday． 　　746 3）表示另一过去动作发生时正在进行的动作： 　　I was studying（一个过去的动作） while（or all the time） mymother was preparing（另一过去的动作） dinner．（两个动作同时发生而且持续同样长的时间） 　　这时也可用一般过去时： 　　I studied as my mother prepared dinner．（动作同时进行，但不一定持续同样长的时间。） 　　I wrote letters when my mother was preparing dinner．（两个动作同时进行，但进行时 was preparing的动作比一般过去时wrote的动作持续的更久。） 　　I was walking along when I met a friend． 　　I arrived at the hospital where the doctor was waiting for me. 　　有时两个句子并无连词连接： 　　I arrived at the hospital． The doctor was waiting for me. 　　The show began at ten．The audience were getting impatient． 　　747 4）用来表示“经过一小段时间，某动作已经在发生”，这时往往表示一些惊讶情绪，常有一个状语表示“不久以后”这类概念： 　　He did not know English．But only a year later，he was speak-ing English fluently with Americans． 　　The child left the hospital．In less than an hour，he was playingin the garden． 　　I got up at7：30，and at 8：00 I was working in the office． 　　My horse fell and I was struggling in the stream. 　　The peace treaty was signed． 　　Before long they were fighting a-gain. 　　在许多其他用法上，过去进行时和现在进行时是很相像的，只不过前者表示过去时间而后者表示现在时间，许多有关后者的规则也同样适用于前者，因此过去进行时还有下面这些用法。 　　748 5）只能用于表示动作的动词，不能用于表示状态的动词（可参阅707节）： 　　I was looking at the sky and saw（不要说was seeing） a strangestar． 　　He was telling me a story but I did not believe（不要用 wasnot believing） it． 　　但一个表示状态的动词，偶尔也可用来表示动作，因而可用 　　过去进行时（参阅707节）： 　　He was being very wise.（=He was behaving very wisely．） 　　He was liking music．（＝ He began to like music．） 　　749 6）表示过去打算办的一件事（参阅709节）： 　　He was departing（＝ planned to depart） the next month． 　　John was coming in two days． 　　I was calling on John two days later． 　　750 7）表示过去反复发生的或习惯性的动作，特别是和一个表示频度的状语一道用时（参阅710节）： 　　John was going to the swimming pool very often. 　　He was taking medicine three times a day． 　　John was waiting while his wife was making herself up．His wife was grumbling whenever （or as often as） he arrivedhome． 　　He was always（＝had the habit of） worrying about a verysmall thing．（不以为然） 　　My mother was constantly praising herself． 　　751 8）表示某种程度的情绪（参阅711节）： 　　He was fighting with the whole world． 　　Was she imposing upon you？ 　　What a happy time we were spending！ 　　752 9）强调动作的重要性（参阅712节）： 　　We were losing our good friends． 　　It was merely wasting our time and money． 　　I was simply doing what I should do． 　　753 10）用来表示对比（参阅713节）： 　　While he was squandering his money，his father was drudgingin the rice field． 　　We were fighting，we were not sitting idle． 　　754 11）表示两个动作实际上是一回事（参阅714节）： 　　In feeding your child with so much food，you were spoiling hisstomach． 　　By beating your children，you are only creating their hatred．755 12）表示即将发生的事，尤其是前面有助动词 ought to，must等时（参阅709节）： 　　I had to（or must，ought to）be going now． 　　He wanted to he drinking something． 　　He intended to be having a rest． 　　756 13）表示一个被动的动作（参阅715节）： 　　Our breakfast was making（＝was being made） ready． 　　A house was building（＝was being built）． 　　757 同样可以其他方式代替过去进行时（参阅717节）： 　　He sat reading． 　　He lay singing. 　　He kept asking this and that． 　　He was alive． 　　The troops were on the march（＝were marching）． 　　He was in the act of stealing（= was stealing）it． 　　The bridge was in process of construction（=was being construct-ed）． 　　758 一般过去时和过去进行时都不宜冒然使用，只宜于在下面情况下用： 　　a）有表示过去时间的状语： 　　We did （or were doing） it yesterday （or last year，three daysago，in 1959 ，on Sunday，once ，some months ago，when itwas raining，just after they arrived）． 　　b）通过上下文或常识可以判断出是过去情况时： 　　“ This morning I went out.”“ But I stayed at home．”（But后省略了this morning） 　　Dr．Sun overthrew the Manchu dynasty． 　　Columbus discovered America． 　　I was having a terrible dream all night．（Most probably lastnight） 　　c）有现在完成时帮助把时间引向过去： 　　I have been to Bangkok，where I stayed at my friend’s house. Asit was raining hard，I had no chance of sight-seeing．（参阅 721节） 　　g．过去完成时 　　759 形式： 　　I（or You，He，John，It，They，Those men） had come. I（or You，He，John，It，They，Those men） had been there.过去完成时的用法： 　　760 1）表示过去某时以前已经结束的动作，过去时间可由时间状语表示出来： 　　I had read the novel by three o‘clock.（I finished it before threeand read it no more at three．） 　　He had sent the letter last Monday．（= He sent the letter be-fore last Monday．） 　　He had finished the work five days before（or earlier）（=five days before a given past time）． 　　We had completed the course in the autumn of 1968． 　　过去时间有时由状语从句表示，下表表示状语从句中动词所表示动作发生时，主句动词表示的动作业已发生： 　　后发生的动作 先发生的动作 　　— When we learned we had studied Chinese． 　　English， 　　— By the time he got he had studied history　married， ten years． 　　— Before he spoke， he had prepared to die. 　　— Although he failed， he had done his best. 　　—In order that he might he had considered the　succeed matter all night． 　　—Where there was a ru－ there had been wealth　in， or power． 　　如果两个动作是同时发生或几乎同时发生的，则都可以用一般过去时表示： 　　When we learned English，We studied Chinese．（= We learned two languages．）（同时发生） 　　When she saw a roach，she screamed．（几乎同时发生） 　　有时过去时间由形容词（定语）从句表示出来，从句动词表示的动作发生时，主句动词表示的动作业已发生： 　　后来的动作 更早的动作 　　—The man that came had travelled in fifty　yesterday countries． 　　—The woman he married had married five times． 　　—This man，who was had failed a hundred　successful now， times． 　　有时名词从句中动词所表示的动作发生时，主句动词所表示的动作业已发生： 　　How he became prime minister had been prophesied thirty years before． 　　也有时反过来，从句中动词表示的动作先发生，主句动词表示的动作后发生，则先发生的用过去完成时表示： 　　后来发生的动作 先发生的动作（状语从句） 　　—He went to school as soon as（or after）he had dressed himself． 　　—The audience applauded when he had finished　his speech． 　　—He was finally defeated though he had always won． 　　—I got ill because I had not eaten properly． 　　但before有时有特殊的用法，表示“不等……就”： 　　He already died before his sons had arrived． 　　I left school before I had finished my course． 　　定语从句和名词从句中动词表示的动作有时先发生，就可用过去完成时表示： 　　后来的动作 更早的动作 　　— I asked a man who had learned sculpture in　Italy． 　　—My wife liked very you had sent me． 　　much the dog 　　—He married a woman who had given birth to five　children． 　　—He said that he had come from 　　Canada． 　　—Ha told John that Mary had got married． 　　—He was afraid that someone had got the　secret． 　　—She was worried that he had not written to　her for a year． 　　—He asked me why I had not got married． 　　在并列句中，有时一个分句中动词表示的动作先于另一分句中动词表示的动作，先发生的动作也用过去完成时表示： 　　后发生动作 先发生动作 　　—He was a beggar for he had lost millions　now， in a night． 　　—He became a great and he had been poor　man， many years． 　　—They all lay down but some had been beggars　together， and others had been kings． 　　有时前后两个句子中，前面句子中动词表示的动作后发生，后面句子中动词所表示的动作先发生，则后面动词须用过去完成时表示： 　　后发生动作 先发生动作 　　—He was thirsty． He had not seen any water for a week． 　　—The child cried． Someone had stolen his cake． 　　—Husband and wife They had quarrelled all　were unhappy． day． 　　尽管过去完成时表示先发生的动作，在特定的情况下它也可用一般过去时代替： 　　1）如果所用连词或状语已表示了时间的先后： 　　—He went to school as soon as（ or after）he（had） dressed himself． 　　—The audience ap- when he（had） finished his　plauded speech． 　　—He spoke after he（had） studied his speech． 　　—He found his watch． He（had） lost it two days　before． 　　—He called on me and he（had） let me know a　on Sunday， week earlier． 　　—He got ill because he had not eaten（or　did not eat） properly． 　　—I asked a man who（had）learned sculpture in Italy． 　　—My wife liked very the dog you（had） sent me． 　　much 　　—He said he came from Canada． 　　在连续写一段话时，如果顺着动作发生的时间顺序往下写，则所用动词都可以用一般过去时。如其中有一个动词表示的动作先于另外的动作，为了避免误解，这个动作应用过去完成时表示： 　　I borrowed a book and read it at night．A week later，I re－turned it to the library and borrowed another．（顺着时间顺序叙述） 　　但：I read at night a book which I had borrowed． A week later，after I had returned it to the library，I borrowed another． 　　When he courted her，she turned him down． But two years later，they were husband and wife． She found it queer indeed．（顺着时间顺序叙述） 　　但： She found the matter queer indeed． She and he were now husband and wife． But only two years before，when he had courted her，she had turned him down．（后面一句追叙更早的事） 　　在追叙更早的情节时，如果一串动词全都用过去完成时会显得很累赘。一般作法是把追叙部分的第一、两个动词用过去完成时表示，使时间关系清楚，后面则都用一般过去时。 　　Finally they got married． They had fallen in love in Tok－yo．They had loved each other tenderly．Their parents had been opposed to their marriage，and they had tried twice to commit suicide．（为了避免累赘，可以把追叙部分第一句中的had fallen保留，后面句子中的过去完成时全可以用一般过去时代替。） 　　另外，历史事实通常应用一般过去时表示，在联系现在情况时，即使另一动词用过去时，也不要把史实用过去完成时表示： 　　I learned that Columbus（不用had）discoverd America． 　　He said Hitler（不用had）killed millions of Jews． 　　如果主句中包含了过去完成时，从句中的过去完成时常以一般过去时代替： 　　I knew he had lost money when he（had） gambled． 　　He said Jim had been caught because he （had）sold drugs． 　　761 2）除了表示发生时间在另一动作之前外，还可表示对后来动作的影响： 　　I had eaten something before I took（后来动作）dinner． 　　（So I had no appetite at dinner．） 　　但：I ate something before I took dinner．（Maybe I had my usual appetite at dinner．） 　　He had learned English before he came（后来动作）to England．（He already knew English when he arrived in England．） 　　He felt worse after he had taken the medicine．（Feeling worse is the result of taking the medicine．） 　　He felt worse after he took the medicine．（Feeling worse may not be the result of taking the medicine．） 　　762 3）在一个否定的句子中表示另一动作前刚发生的动作，有时可译成“刚刚……就……”或“不等……就……”： 　　He had not（or scarcely，hardly，barely） touched his re-volver when（or before） he got shot． 　　No sooner had he opened his mouth than I knew what he wanted to say． 　　763 4）表示过去某时前已经发生并在继续发生的事时，通常有一个表示一段时间的状语，可译为“到……为止”，或“自从……就一直（已经）”（可参阅725节）： 　　By December last year，he had worked for ten years．（Most probably he was still working in December．） 　　Up to that time all had gone well． 　　He had lived here since he got married．（He was still here．） 　　He had learned a lot since he became a student．（He was still learning．） 　　764 5）还可表示一个未实现的愿望，特别是动词表示“打算”这类意思时，可译“本来打算……”： 　　I had intended to do．（=I intended to have gone．）（ I in－tended to go，but I did not go．） 　　He had hoped to help you．（=He hoped to have helped you＝ He had hoped to have helped you＝ His hope was to have helped you．）（But he did not help you．） 　　He had expected to meet you at the restaurant． 　　I had meant to invite him to dinner． 　　He had been inclined to be an artist． 　　I should like to have seen it．（现在的愿望） 　　I should have liked to have seen（or to see） it．（过去的愿望） 　　You had better have stayed here．（未被接受的劝告） 　　765 6）用来代替一般过去时，表示惊奇（参阅747节）： 　　I saw her from afar．In a minute，however，she had disap－peared． 　　When he said this，his enemy had come up to him． 　　It was kept secret，but two days afterwards everyone had talked about it． 　　He had scarcely raised his hand when his antagonist had lain him on the ground． 　　766 7）在 said，reported后的间接引语中优替一般过去时及现在完成时： 　　He said“I have asked the Mayor．”＝ He said that he had asked the Mayor． 　　He exclaimed，“I saw it．”＝ He exclaimed that he had seen it． 　　但： I said，“He had been very sad since his wife died．”= I said that he had been very sad since his wife died（不要说 had died）． 　　I was told he had lost confidence in everything since he be－came（而不是 had become） bankrupt． 　　I was told he talked as if he knew（or had known） every－thing． 　　767 8）用来对一个没听清楚的过去情况提问（参阅742节）： 　　A：They sold six hundred pieces． 　　B：（Talks about something else，and then asks） 　　How many pieces had they sold？（= How many pieces did you say they had sold？） 　　A： I kept it in a small box． 　　B：（After some time） Where had you kept it？ 　　768 9）用在状语从句中表示从过去时间看将来某时前已经发生的事（来代替过去将来完成时）： 　　He said（in the morning）he would return（in the evening） when he had spoken to Mary（in the afternoon）．（代替would have spoken） 　　We would study abroad if our father had earned some mon－ey by then．（代替 would have earned．） 　　h．过去完成进行时 　　769 形式： 　　I （or You，He，John，They，Those men） had been studying． 　　770 过去完成进行时与过去完成时的用法很相近，它通常表示一个持续到过去某时的动作： 　　He had been waiting for two weeks． He was still waiting．（有一个表示一段时间的状语） 　　Up to that time he had been translating those books．（He was still translating at “that time”．） 　　He had been writing the letter till two o’clock． 　　He was now thirty years old．He had been gambling since he was ten．（He was still gambling at thirty．） 　　He had been standing there in the sun．（没有时间状语） 　　He had been thinking about his marriage． 　　不过这个时态并不一定表示这个过去动作将持续下去： 　　He came back at seven．He had been waiting for her two hours．（At seven he did not wait any more．） 　　He stopped swimming．He had been swimming for the last three hours． 　　771 另一方面，这个时态也和现在完成进行时一样，也可有一些特别的含义（可参阅734节）： 　　1）尚未完成： 　　He had been writing the novel．（He had not finished it yet．） 　　2）企图： 　　He had been studying the meaning of this proverb．（He was trying to study it．） 　　3）未得结果： 　　We had been studying what our enemy had said．（But we were not able to understand it．） 　　4）最近情况： 　　He had been quarrelling with his wife．（lately） 　　5）反复动作： 　　He had been asking me the same question．（Many times） 　　6）情绪： 　　What had he been doing？（不耐烦） 　　这个时态很少用在否定句中，而多以过去完成时代替： 　　He had not practised English for many years．（普通说法） 　　He had not been practising English for many years．（少见） 　　这个时态还可用在said，supposed等引起的间接引语中，代替现在完成进行时： 　　He said，“I have been speaking to John．”＝ He said that he had been speaking to John． 　　He thought，“She was watching me when I passed．”＝ He thought that she had been watching him when he had passed． 　　i．一般将来时 　　772 形式： 　　I（or You，He，John，It，They，Those men） will go． 　　I （or You，He，John，It，They，Those men） shall go． 　　773 一般将来时是用来表示将来时间的。在美国，单纯表示将来时，所有人称后都用will，只是在客气的问句中用shall，征求对方的意见，如：Shall I （we）wait here？在英国，sha11，will 的用法比较复杂；即使在美国，在比较正式的文体中，这些复杂的用法也仍然存在。在这些细微用法中，一般说来shall和will是否表示愿望，在不同的人称之后而相异，在陈述句和在疑问句中而不同，在直接引语和间接引语中也不同。简言之，它可能表示意愿或某人的愿望，有时却单纯表示将来时间。 　　这些差别从下面各对句子中可以看出： 　　I shall die when I am old．（自然规律，不是任何人的愿望。） 　　I will die（=I am willing to die），I hate to live．（说话人自己的愿望） 　　We shall lose the war，because they are stronger．（不表示任何人的愿望） 　　We will fight（=We wish to fight） to the last man．（主语we的愿望） 　　You will die when you are old．（不表示任何人的愿望） 　　You shall die（= I wish you to die） because you violate the law．（说话人的愿望，而不是主语you的愿望。） 　　They will be defeated because they are cowards．（不表示任何人的愿望） 　　They shall stop（=I want them to stop）doing any mis－chief．（说话人的愿望，而不是they的愿望。） 　　Will he come tomorrow？（不表示愿望） 　　Shall he come（=Do you want him to come） tomorrow？（第二人称you的愿望） 　　Shall I live long？（不表示愿望） 　　Shall I help（＝Do you want me to help） you？（第二人称you的愿望） 　　He says，“I shall come．＝He says that he will come． 　　774 一般将来时的用法： 　　1）在陈述句中表示单纯的未来动作： 　　形式： 　　a） I （or We） shall（or will） succeed． 　　b） You will succeed． 　　c）He （or She，John，They，Those men）will succeed． 　　It （or This car） will do． 　　例句： 　　a） I shall be able to help you．（能力） 　　I shall be qualified to teach． 　　I shall be obliged to wait a few months．（义务） 　　I shall have to tell her the bad news． 　　I shall feel very sorry．（感情） 　　I shall never regret． 　　I shall see and hear many strange things．（客观上要发生的事）（但： I will look and listen．主观愿望） 　　I shall never succeed，but shall suffer and die． 　　I shall be robbed and killed．（不幸的遭遇） 　　I shall be sick． 　　We shall have a good chance．（机会） 　　I hope I shall see her．（口语中也可说 I shall hope to see her．） 　　I shall live until 80．（命运） 　　I shall live single all my life． 　　We shall lose everything if we are careless．（后果） 　　In these circumstances we shall be friendless． 　　We shall probably go tomorrow．（不肯定） 　　We shall perhaps meet some acquaintances． 　　We shall be rewarded．（被动语态） 　　We shall be waited on by pretty girls． 　　We shall buy a new car．（不包含人的愿望的情况） 　　We shall do some business． 　　（按照美国用法及非正式的英国用法，上面的例句中所有shall通常都以will代替。） 　　在主语为第二或第三人称时，都用will来表示同样的东西，如能力，义务等。下面例句足以说明这一用法： 　　b） You will be able to understand what I say． 　　You will be arrested． 　　You will succeed． 　　You and I will have a good chance． 　　c） He will have a good opportunity． 　　He will be reproached． 　　She will follow a fool if she marries a fool． 　　The wind will blow westward． 　　A disaster will fall on our heads． 　　775 2）用于陈述句，表示说话人的愿望： 　　形式： 　　d） I（or We） will pay the cost． 　　I （or We） shall pay the cost． 　　e） You shall pay the cost． 　　You will pay the cost． 　　f） He（or She，John，They，Those men） shall pay the cost． 　　He （or She，John，They，Those men）will pay the cost．例句： 　　d） I will（＝ wish to）（强调） marry her．（说话人I的愿望） 　　I will（=I am willing to） be a nice by in future，but not now． 　　I will （=want to） have your answer． 　　I will answer for it with my life． 　　I promise I will pay you． 　　I won‘t take this dirty money． 　　I will be obeyed． 　　We will（＝Let us） go there no more． 　　We will take a rest． 　　I shall（=I certainly will） defend myself if he should at－tack me．（表示决心） 　　I shall not do any such thing． 　　I shall spank you if you are impolite． 　　e）You shall marry（=I want you to marry） him．（命令）（正式英国英语） 　　You shall be（=I wish you to be） happy．（许诺） 　　You shall not smoke（=I forbid you to smoke）．（禁止） 　　You shall never do such a silly thing again． 　　Do you understand？ 　　If you do not obey me，you shall leave the house．（威胁）You shall be punished．（= I wish you to be punished，or I wish to punish you．）（被动语态） 　　You shall be rewarded．（＝I will reward you，or will have you rewarded．） 　　You will hand（＝are requested to hand） in your identity card．（这里出于礼貌用will代替shall，使命令口气得到缓和。） 　　You will take good care of these things． 　　You will investigate this case． 　　You will kindly（or perhaps，I know，I am sure） wait here till three o’clock in the afternoon．（用kindly等词使命令的口气进一步缓和） 　　Every member will come（＝He is requested to come） this evening． 　　Evening dress will be worn． 　　All employees will attend the meeting． 　　All visitors will show their identity cards． 　　You will（=shall） do nothing of the sort．（偶尔也可用will代替shall，表示盛气凌人的态度。） 　　You will marry John，and the wedding will take place next week．（在日常会话中，上面句子中的 shall，will多以must代替。） 　　f）She shall marry（＝ I want her to marry）him．（正式文体） 　　The criminal shall die． 　　My child shall trouble you no more． 　　This student shall be rewarded． 　　The task shall be finished by Sunday． 　　It shall rain（or thunder）．（上帝的旨意或威胁） 　　It shall not be said（=I will not say，or I will not allow it to be said） that I am unwilling to help any friends． 　　776 3）用在问句中表示单纯的未来动作（这钟不涉及愿望的将来时也像774节i）a）中句子里的将来时一样可表示能力、义务等）： 　　形式： 　　g） Shall you succeed？ 　　Will you succeed？ 　　h） Will he（or she，John，they，those men） succeed？i） Shall I（or we） succeed？ 　　Will I（or we） succeed？（美国英语） 　　例句： 　　g） Shall you see Wang this evening？ 　　Shall you be at home tomorrow？ 　　When shall you need the money？ 　　Shall you be angry if she says that？ 　　（在这样用时will比shall用得更多一些） 　　h） Will he be arrested？ 　　Will they meet him on the street，if they go at nine？Will Wang be pleased with me？ 　　i） Shall I be a good husband？ 　　Shall I understand English in four or five years？What shall we learn next term？ 　　How long shall I live？ 　　Shall we have war or peace？ 　　Will（=Shall） I meet her at the party？（美国英语）Will we have peace or war？ 　　777 4）在问句中表示第二人称（you）的意愿： 　　形式： 　　j） Will you pay the cost？ 　　k） Shall I （or we）pay the cost？ 　　l） Shall he（or she，John，they，those men）pay the cost？ 　　m） Will I（or we）pay the cost？（少见） 　　例句： 　　j）Will you go or stay？（Do you wish to go or stay？） 　　Will you dine with me this evening？ 　　Will you kindly（or be kind enough to，be so kind as to） show me the way？ 　　When will you lend me the book which you say is very in－teresting？ 　　Will（or Won‘t） you dine with me？（邀请） 　　Will you do me the pleasure（or the honour） of dining with me？ 　　How will you settle the problem which nobody can settle？ 　　Why will you go（=Are you so obstinate as to go）so soon？ 　　Will you stop（=Are you willing to stop）making that noise？（不耐烦） 　　Open the door，will you？ 　　k） What shall I do？（＝What do you want me to do？） 　　（Shall I比shall的任何其他用法都更普通） 　　Shall I open the window？（=Do you agree with me to open it？） 　　Who shall I speak to？（=Who do you want me to speak to？） 　　When shall I be paid？（=When do you want to pay me？） 　　I（or We） will go（=wish to go） to the pictures，shall I （or we）（=do you allow me or us to）？ 　　Sha11 we have an examination？ 　　l） Shall he pay you tomorrow？（=Do you want him to pay you tomorrow？）（用于第三人称后的时候极少） 　　When shall they start the game？ 　　Who shall be the umpire？ 　　Shall they be punished？ 　　m）“Will you do it？”“Will I do it？Of course not．” 　　“Will you go？”“Will I？（＝Of course，I will．）” 　　We won’t do it，will we？ 　　What will I not do？（＝I will do anything．） 　　778 5）用在问句及答句中表示单纯将来动作或意愿： 　　表示单纯的将来动作： 　　Shall you succeed？ I shall succeed． 　　Shall I succeed？ You will succeed． 　　Will he succeed？ He will succeed． 　　表示意愿： 　　Will you go？ I will go． 　　Shall I go？ You shall go； You may go； 　　Yes，please．（这样说命令的口气弱些） 　　Shall we go？ You shall go； You may go； 　　We（we中包括了I） 　　will go； or，Let us go． 　　Shall he go？ He shall go；He may go； Let him　go；or，Yes，please． 　　779 6）用在间接引语中表示意愿或单纯的将来动作： 　　He says to me，“you shall not do so．”和 I ask him，“when will she come？”这两个句子中都包含有直接引语，如果变成 He says to me that I shall not do so和 I ask him when she will come后，就都包含有间接引语。在头两个句子中，He和I可称作第一主语，you和she可称作第二主语，says和ask为这类句子中的引语动词。可以跟有间接引语或名词从句的动词有：say，state，reply，declare，explain，suggest，advise，hear，see，notice，understand，feel，know，think，imagine，suppose，know，等。还有一些短语也可跟这类结构，如 be afraid，be aware，be glad，be of opinion，be under apprehension，have no idea等。 　　在改为间接引语时，有时shall，will保持不变，尽管第二主语的人称已经改变，如： 　　He says（ to you），“I shall succeed．” 　　＝He says that he shall succeed． 　　You say（to him），“You will lose all．” 　　＝ You say he will lose all． 　　如果第二主语和第一主语同指一个人，shall表示的是单纯的将来动作： 　　I say I shall succeed． 　　He says he shall be glad to see you． 　　如果第二主语和第一主语不是一个人，则shall表示第一主语的愿望（命令或建议）： 　　He says I shall be promoted．（=He wants to promote me．） 　　I say he shall be punished．（=I order him to be pun－ished．） 　　如果第二主语和第一主语不指同一人，will表示单纯的未来动作： 　　He says you will get sick． 　　You say he will die very soon． 　　如果第一主语和第二主语同指一人，则will表示第二主语的意愿： 　　He says he will come． 　　I say I will do my best． 　　780 此外，从下面句子中不难看出，如果第一主语和第二主语同指一人，如shall表示单纯未来的动作，则will表示意愿；如shall表示意愿，则will表示单纯的末来情况。反过来也如此。 　　在下面例句中，U表示单纯未来情况，I代表意愿，fail表示单纯未来情况，try表示意愿： 　　I know I shall（or will美式） fail（U），but I think I will（I）try．（在第一、第二主语均为I时，shall表示单纯未来情况，will表示意愿。） 　　I suggest you shall（I） try and I don‘t think you will（U）fail．（在第一主语为I，第二主语为you时，shall表示意愿，而will表示单纯未来情况。） 　　I propose he shall（I）try，although I am sure he will（U） fail．（第一主语为I，第二主语为he时，shall表示意愿，will表示单纯未来情况。） 　　You know I shall（U） fail，but do you expect that I will（I） try？ 　　You advise that I shall（I） try，and you don’t care whether I will（美国用法，在英国 shall用得更多些。）（U） fail． 　　You are sure you shall（用 will时更多些）（U） fail，but you tell me you will（I） try． 　　You insist that he shall（I）try，you have no idea that he will（U）fail． 　　He believes that I shall（or will）（U） fail，so he doubts whether I will（I）fail． 　　He orders that I shall（I） try，because he doesn‘t think I will（美式）（U）fail． 　　He wonders whether he shall（用will时更多些）（U）fail，but he tells me he will（I） try． 　　He suggests that she shall（I）try，although he knows she will（U）fail． 　　Will可用来代替shall表示第一主语的命令或请求，在这种情况下，第二主语似乎将按此行事（参阅755e）： 　　He says we will come at eight． 　　They say you will hand in the papers． 　　Do you say they will start tomorrow？ 　　I say you will stay here until the end of this year． 　　781 更多例句： 　　表示单纯的未来情况： 　　We think we shall never live to see him again． 　　He asks me whether I think I shall succeed． 　　He predicts that I shall be rich in ten years． 　　I hear that he will take back the property． 　　You don’t know what John will do． 　　I hope he will not commit suicide because of her． 　　Nobody can say what he himself will be in five years． 　　I trust you and I will live happily together． 　　He thinks he shall die，but the doctor says he will not． 　　表示意愿： 　　I can tell you what I shall say，but not what I will． 　　He says he will do anything you ask him to do．I believe nobody will do a thing harmful to himself．He always promises that you shall have his daughter．He determines（or expects）that his daughter shall marryWang． 　　He suggests．（or advises，demands，requires，orders，com－mands，etc．）that somebody shall do it，or something（shall）be done．（shall在这种情况下可省略） 　　They are determined（or anxious）it（shall）be done at once．People ignore the rule that nobody shall smoke here．Always remember my desire，girl，that you shall never mar-ry a rich man． 　　注：如同在一般将来时中一样，在j．将来进行时k．将来完成时，及m．将来完成进行时中，shall通常都由will代替。 　　j.将来进行时 　　782 形式： 　　I shall be travelling． 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men）will be travelling．783 将来进行时的用法： 　　1）表示在将来一段时间正在进行的动作： 　　He will be working hard next week（=throughout next week）. 　　We shall be travelling this time next year． 　　I will be enjoying myself while you are working hard． 　　She will be taking care of the children while you are gone.时间状语有时不说出： 　　We shall be meeting again（or from time to time）． 　　They will be discussing it. 　　784 2）除了表示未来以外，还可表示亲切和客气： 　　I shall be thinking of you． 　　Will you be staying here long？ 　　Shall you be getting home late？ 　　Shall I be disturbing you？ 　　You will be killing yourself． 　　I shall be telling him to keep silent． 　　785 3）表示可能性。这样用时，这个“将来”时态实际上指现在情况（参阅790节）： 　　He will（=may）be expecting me． 　　You will be deceiving yourself． 　　You will be making a mistake． 　　786 在这个时态中用shall，will表示意愿的情况是不很多的。 　　k．将来完成时 　　787 形式： 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men）will have done it．I shall have done it． 　　788 将来完成时的用法： 　　1）表示将来某时或某动作发生时业已完成的动作： 　　I shall have written the letter by ten o‘clock tomorrow．（=I shall finish it before ten．） 　　He will have been graduated before 1980． 　　She will have been married to another man when you re－turn from abroad． 　　The patient will have died by the time his son arriveshome． 　　I shall have done it next Friday（or in less than twomonths，when you come back）． 　　I shall have finished it by next Sunday． 　　He will have written it tomorrow at noon． 　　在以if，unless，when，before，after，as soon as等连词引起的状语从句中，通常都以现在完成时代替这个时态： 　　I intend to go to college after I have completed my highschool course． 　　You will like the book after you have read it． 　　I will let you know as soon as I have decided． 　　789 2）表示一个持续到将来某时或某个动作发生时的动作，这样用时必须有一个表示未来时间的状语： 　　By next Sunday he will have lived in Bangkok for twentyyears. 　　The concert will begin at 9 p.m.They will have playedhalf an hour when we arrive． 　　By the time I leave school I shall have studied English sixyears. 　　790 3）表示一个可能已完成的动作。这样用时，这个“将来”时态实际上表示一个过去情况（参阅785节）： 　　It is eleven．He will（=may）have gone to bed（=It islikely that he has gone to bed）． 　　He has become rich．He will have forgotten his friend（＝It is probable that he has forgotten his friend）． 　　Did you go to the gambling house last night？You will havelost all you have． 　　791 在这个时态中，表示意愿的时候是极少的。 　　1．将来完成进行时 　　792 形式： 　　I（or You，He，John，They，Those men）will have been doingit． 　　I shall have been doing it． 　　793 将来完成进行时的用法和将来完成时的用法很相近，主要是将来完成进行时更多强调动作本身，但这个时态用得不多。 　　794 将来完成进行时的用法： 　　1）表示将来某时某事之前业已在发生的动作： 　　He will have been playing on the piano by that time． 　　795 2）表示将来某时某动作已持续多久： 　　By the time the sun rises，I shall have been sleeping fornine hours． 　　He will have been studying Chinese seven years by 1980． 　　By six this evening I shall have been working for ten hours. 　　It will have been raining for a whole week if it rains gaintomorrow． 　　796 3）表示一种猜想，实际上指现在情况： 　　He will（=may）have been waiting for me．But I cannotgo，because it is raining． 　　It is winter．It will have been snowing in the north．