Ⅰ.名词的定义
14 名词是人、动物、事物、地方、状态、品质或动作的名称。它可以表示具体的东西,也可表示抽象的东西。下面斜体字都是名词:
John is my friend.My children love their teachers.(人)
The dog is running after a rat.(动物)
This school is good.Broadway is a street in New York City.(地方)
My pencil is lost.The window of this house is pretty.(东西)
Poverty is a big problem.Everyone seeks happiness.(状态)
His bravery is well-known.I enjoy the beauty of this moun-tain.(品质)
His arrival was on Sunday.His judgment is not correct.(动作)
Ⅱ.名词的单复数
A.复数构成法
1.规则的复数形式
15 构成法:一个名词如果表示一个或一样东西,它取单数形式,如pen,dog,tree,fact,church,kiss.如果表示两个或更多这类东西,则需用名词的复数形式,如pens,dogs,trees,facts,churches,kisses.构成名词复数,大多数是在单数形式后加-s或-es,有下面6种情况:
a.在单数形式后直接加-s:
girl girls hat hats
neck necks tree trees
pencil pencils kind kings
b.如单数名词以s,x,sh,ch或z结尾,需在后面加-es:
kiss kisses church churches
fox foxes match matches
tax taxes watch watches
dish dishes branch branches
brush brushes buzz buzzes
c.以y结尾的词,变y为i,再加-es:
lady ladies army armies
baby babies story stories
soliloquy soliloquies colloquy colloquies
如果y前还有一个元音字母,则直接加-s:
day days key keys
boy boys monkey monkeys
d.以o结尾的词,多数加-s:
demo demos inferno infernos
kilo kilos tempo tempos
cello cellos memo memos
banjo banjos octavo octavos
piano pianos canto cantos
dynamo dynamos tobacco tobaccos
solo solos photo photos
cameo cameos ratio ratios
以“元音字母+o”结尾的词,一概加-s:curios,rodeos,bamboos,tattoos,…
但有少数以o 结尾的词后需加-es:
echo,echoes; embargo,embargoes; jingo,jingoes; torpe- do;torpedoes;veto,vetoes;hero,heroes;negro,ne-groes;potato,potatoes;mosquito,mosquitoes;go,goes;no,noes;motto,mottoes.
其他以o结尾的词,一般既可加-s,也可加-es:
zero,zeros,zeroes;halo,halos,haloes;mango,mangos,mangoes.此外还有:motto;tornado;volcano;cargo;buffalo;commando.
e.以f或fe结尾的词,多数直接加-s:
chief chiefs reef reefs
cliff cliffs cuff cuffs
roof roofs fife fifes
belief beliefs safe safes
gulf gulfs strife strifes
但有几个名词,需变f为v,再加es:
elf elves leaf leaves
calf calves thlef thleves
shelf shelves loaf loaves
half halves life lives
self selves wife wives
wolf wolves knife knives
有个别名词,可加-s或-es:
hoof hoofs,hooves wharf wharfs,wharves
scarf scarfs,scarves dwarf dwarfs,dwarves
beef beefs,beeves staff staffs,staves
16 词尾读音:-s或-es 可读作[s],[iz]或[z]:
a.在清辅音(Voiceless Consonant)后读[s],如:
cups[k)ps],shapes[Meips],hats [h$ts],dates[deits],dochs[d&ks],lakes[leiks],monarchs[‘m&n+ks],fifes[faifs],roofs[ru:fs],laughs[la:fs],coughs[k&fs],pho-tographs [’f+t+gra:fs].
在th后多数读[s],如: cloths[kl&Is],month[m)nIs],myths[miIs].但在少数情况下也读[z],如:
path[pa:I],paths[pa: J z]
oath[+uI],oaths[+uJz]
mouth[mauI],mouths[mauJz]
wreath[ri:I],wreaths[ri:Jz]
bath[ba:I],baths[ba:Jz]
th 前有长元音或双元音时读作: youths[ju:Jz],truths[truJz],sheaths[Mi:Jz].
b.在s,z,M,tM,DN等音后读[iz]:
kisses[‘kisiz] foxes[’f&ksiz]
dishes[‘diMiz] churches[’tM+:tMiz]
languages[‘l$Rgwidziz] roses[’r+uziz]
c.在其他情况下均读[z],如:
dogs[d&gz],pens[penz],boys[b&iz],girls[g+:lz],names[neimz],cities[‘sitiz],ways[weiz].
2.不规则的复数形式
17 有些名词有不规则的复数形式:
a.把单数形式稍加变化,成为复数形式:
单数 复数 单数 复数
man men foot feet
alderman aldermen foot foots(=dregs)
woman women goose geese
countrywoman countrywomen goose gooses(=iron)
mouse mice tooth teeth
dormouse dormice child children
louse lice ox oxen
b.把单数形式用作复数形式(即单复同形):
1)sheep,deer,swine,fish,cod,salmon,trout,但在表示不同种类时可加-s、又如 fox,hare,tiger,bear,heron等单数形式,是猎人用语。
2) dozen,score(20),head(头数),stone( 14磅重量),brace,stand,series,species,craft,foot,sail,change,horse.
例如: two dozen of these,a hundred species of fish,allkinds of craft,20 head of cattle,six hundred,ten stone.
(但要说hundreds of,thousands of years.)
3) corps,abatis,chamois,rendezvous,faux pas,chassis,patois.这些词为法语词,单数时s不读音,用作复数时s读作[z]。
4) data,errata,phenomena,stamina,strata.这些词为拉丁语,原为复数形式,也可用作单数。
5)Chinese,Japanese,Burmese,Vietnamese,Swiss,Sioux.
这些表示一些国家的人民,也是单复同形。
3.外来语的复数形式
18 许多名词原系外来词,特别是一些科学上的术语,仍沿用原来的复数形式。但其中有些已采用英语词尾-s或-es。在口语中带-s或-es词尾的复数形式用得较多。-s或-es词尾可以加在原来的单数形式后,但不可加在原来的复数形式后:
拉丁语:
——单数:bacillus[b+’sil+s],locus[‘l+k+s],alumnus,nucleus,camulus ,stimulus; cactus(es),syllabus(es),radius(es),octopus(es),fungus(es),terminus(es),colossus(es),incubus(es),genius(es),magus(es),narcissus(es),hippopotamus(es),focus(es)
复数: bacilli[b+’silai],loci[‘l+sai],alumni…; cacti orcactuses,radii or radiuses,octopi or octopuses…
——单数: datum[’deit+m],stratum,erratum,referendum,spectrum ,auditorium,bacterium ,ovum ,sympo-sium,agendum,addendum; maximum(s),minimum(s),millenium(s),gymnasium(s),curriculum(s),medium(s),memorandum(s),decorum(s),momen-tum(s),compendium(s),effluvium(s),sanatorium(s),aquarium(s),encomium(s),serum(s),stadium(s),honorarium(s),emporium(s)
复数:data[‘deit+],strata,errata…; maxima or maxi-mums,minima or minimums,curricula or curricu-lums…
—单数: vertebra[’v#::tibr+],larva,nebula,lacuna; antenna(s),formula(s),retina(s),uvula(s),drachma(s)penumbra(s)
复数: vertebrae[‘v#::tibri:],larvae…; antennae或 anten-nas,formulae或 formulas…
—单数: index[’indeks](es),apex(es),vortex(es),appendix(es),matrix(es),helix(es),calyx(es)
复数: indices[‘indis:z]或indexes[’indeksi:z],apices或apexes;appendices或appendixes…
希腊语:
—单数: oasis[o‘ersis],antithesis,analysis,basis,nemesis,parenthesis synthesis,thesis,metamorphosis,ellipsis,hypothesis,crisis,pelvis
复数: oases[o’ersis],antitheses,analyses…
——单数: phenomenon,automaton(s),criterion
复数: phenomena,automata或 automatons,criteria
法语:
——单数:beau[b+],chateau,corps;adieu(s),bureau(s),tableau(s),trousseau(s),portmanteau(s)
复数: beaux[b+uz],flambeaux,chateaux,corps,adieux或adieus…
意大利语、希伯莱语等:
——单数: bandit(s),libretto(s),soprano(s),dilettante(s),vir-tuoso(s),tempo(s)
复数: banditti或 bandits,libretti或 librettos,soprani或 so- pranos…
——单数: cherub(s),seraph(s)
复数: cherubim或 cherubs,seraphim或seraphs
——单数:bolshevik(s)
复数:bolsheveki或bolsheviks
——单数: vietcong; yen,sen; renminbi(= yuan),liang
复数: vietcong; yen,sen; renminbi(= yuan),liang
19 但下面词已完全变成英国字,只加-s或-es就可以构成复数形式:
a. sinus,prospectus,crocus,chorus,circus,bonus,census,re-bus,omnibus.(es)
b.villa,area,arena,era,idea,dogma,encyclopaedia,sonata,viola,vista.(s)
c. album,asylum,museum,premium,nostrum,geranium.(s)
4.其他复数形式
20 下面是一些值得注意的特殊复数形式:
a.某些词、字母、数目字、斜体词、缩略语的复数形式:
before,before‘s;perhaps,perhaps’s ;s,s‘s;p,p’s9,9‘s; 6,6’s; 765,765‘s Tribune,Tribunes;liang,liangs;Macbeth,Macbeths M.P.,M.P.s; Iou,Ious;D.D.;D.D.s;Bro.,Bros.;Prof.; Profs.; Dr.,Drs.; S. Peter,SS. Peter and Paul.P,PP.(= pages); l.,ll.(=lines);n.,nn.(= nouns).in.=inch(es); ft.=foot,feet; m=mile(s); m.=metre(s);t.= ton(s);oz.= ounce(s);lb.= pound(s);gm.=gram(s);$=dollar(s); £=pound(s); sec.=second(s);h.= hour(s);w.=watt(s); v.=volt(s);cal.=calorie(s)
b.专有名词及人名的复数形式:
Mary:Marys,Maries;Cato:Catos,Catoes;Charles:Charles’,CharlesesJanuary: Januarys,Januaries带头衔的人名可有两种复数形式(同一人名同一头衔):
Miss Anderson: Misses Anderson(较文气的说法)或 Miss Andersons(口语体的说法)
the Ladies Huntington或 the Lady Huntingtons
the Messrs.Smith或the Mr.Smiths
the Doctors Smith或 the Doctor Smiths.
the John S.Blacks,Jr.或 the John S. Black,Jrs.
the children Johnson或 the Johnson children
有些只有一种复数形式(人名不同但头衔相同):
Messrs.(或 Professors,Presidents,Fathers,Drs.,Lieu-tenants) Smith and Brown
但是: Mr.,Mrs.and the Misses Watanabe; Professor and Miss Lee(人名相同但头衔不同)
c.合成词的复数形式:
如合成词中的第一个字是名词或更重要,-s词尾就加在它上面:
1) commanders-in-chief,fathers-in-law,editors-in-chief,coats-of-mail,maids-of-all-work,tenants-at-will,men-at-arms,men-of-war,bills of fare,quarters of an hour
2) courts martial,poets laureate,postmasters general,heirs apparent,knights errant,prices current,letters patent,(在通俗语言中也可说court-martials,knight-errants,etc.)
3) lookers-on,standers-by,passers-by,hangers-on
4)lyings-in,settings-up,layings-out,goings-on
5) carriages-and-four,coaches-and-six
6) brides- to-be
其他合成词几乎全都把-s词尾加在最后:
brother-officers,firing squads,slide-rules,cutthroats,look-outs,grownups,cure-alls,forget-me-nots,fly-by-nights,merry-go-rounds,nc‘er-do-wells,go-betweens,stay-at-homes;good-for-nothings,three-year-olds;whisky-and-so-das;something elses
但下面类型的合成词,前后两个字都用复数形式:
man servant,men servants,man saint,men saints; womansinger,women singers;woman writer,women writers; gen- tleman-farmer,gentlemen-farmers; clergyman-poet,clergy men-poets; Lord(s) Justices; Lord(s) Cardinals; Knight(s)Templars
d.有类别作用的名词所有格可有两种复数形式(参看124):
printer’s errors或 printers‘ errors; bird’s nests,或 birds‘ nests,peacock’s feathers,或 peacocks‘ feathers
有时两种形式的意思不同,如:
crow’s nests(桅顶望台),crows‘nests(鸟鸦巢);bull’s eyes(靶心),bulls‘eyes(公牛的眼睛)
B.单复数形式的意义
21 1.绝大多数复数形式的意义和单数形式相同,只有数量上的差别,如:I have a house.
He has many houses.
I am a teacher.
We are teachers of an elementary school.
2.但有些名词只有复数形式有意义,单数形式不存在,如:tidings,news,oats,trousers,mathematics,bowels,dregs,summons
3.另有许多名词,特别是不可数名词,只有单数形式有意义,只能用于单数形式,如:
ink,pork,paste,soil,lumber,haste,quiet,thunder,might,wisdom,courage,hunger
4.有些名词的单数形式和复数形式意思不同,如:
单数形式 复数形式
iron铁 irons锁练
sand沙 sands沙地
air空气 airs神情
salt盐 salts泻盐
ground地 grounds房子周围的院子
force力量 forces武装部队
advice劝告,忠言 advices通知
return返回 returns利润
good好处 goods商品
compass罗盘 compasses两脚规
vesper傍晚 vespers晚祷
paper纸 papers报纸,文件
writing文件 writings著作
5.有些名词,有两个复数,因而有两个意思:
单数形式 复数形式1 复数形式2
a.brother brothers(兄弟) brethren(同组织的成员)
genius geniuses(天才) genii(精灵)
penny pennies(便士,指铜币) pence(指价值)
staff staves(乐谱记号) staffs(棒)
die dies(铸模) dice(骰子)
cloth cloths(布块) clothes(衣服)
Englishman Enhlishmen theEnglish(英
(个别英国人) 国人总称)
formula formulas(例规) formulae(公式)
medium mediums(巫师) media(传媒)
单个的复数 总称
b.shot shots shot
cannon cannons cannon(大炮)
fish fishes fish(鱼)
heathen heathens. heathen(异教徒)
6.有些名词的复数形式除了表示原意外,还可有其他意思,如arm的复数形式arms,除了表示“手臂”外,还可表示“武器”:
单数形式 复数形式(本意外的其他意思)
arm手臂 arms武器,军备
colour颜色 colours旗帜
custom风俗 customs海关
circumstance情况 circumstances环境,处境
desert沙漠 deserts应得的报偿(应)
effect效果 effects用品
letter信,字母 letters文学
list表 lists角斗场
manner方式 manners礼貌
minute分钟 minutes会议记录
part部分 parts才干
premise前提 premises房屋建筑
quarter四分之一 quarters居住区
scale刻度 scales天平,磅秤
spectacle景象 spectacles眼镜
term学期 terms条件
7.有些名词,特别是具有可数与不可数两种性质的,复数形式的意思要少一些:
单数形式 复数形式
light光线,亮光,灯 lights灯
powder粉子,药粉,火药 powders 药粉
practice作法,练习,开业 practices作法
people人,民族,人民 peoples 民族
matter物质,内容,问题,事情 matters情况,问题
sight视力,景象 sights景象
Ⅲ.名词的种类
22 名词有下面5种:
1.普通名词:一些人、物、地的通称,如:teacher,dog,city,river,church,book
2.专有名词:某个人、地方、动物或东西特有的名称,如:Con-fucius(孔子),John,Blackie(狗名),London,Mississippi,St. Paul’s,Bible,New York Times.专有名词第一个字母要大写。
3.集体名词:某类人、动物或东西的集体名称,如:mankind family,army,company,flock,pack,swarm,furniture
4.物质名词:一种物质(常无固定形状)的名称,如: sugar,gold,rice,air,oil,oxygen,perfume
5.抽象名词:一种品质、状态或动作或抽象概念的名称,如:goodness,hardness,poverty,quiet,arrival,destruction按照上述定义,cow为普通名词,Lucky(母牛名)为专有名词,herd为集体名词,beef为物质名词,patience为抽象名词。同样,warship是普通名词,the Elizabeth Ⅱ(船名)为专有名词,fleet为集体名词,iron为物质名词,speed为抽象名词。
Ⅳ.可数名词与不可数名词
A.定义
23 名词分可数名词与不可数名词。
1.凡属前面可加不定冠词 a(an)或其相应代词(如 another,one,every,each)并能用于复数形式的为可数名词,如:
(a) boy,(another) book,(every) house,(each) day
2.不能加a或其相应代词,也不能用于复数形式的为不可数名词,如:beef,oil,bravery,information,poverty
3.可数名词和不可数名词,前面都可加定冠词the,或this,that,some,any,no这类代词,如:
(the)waiter,(this) oil,(that) idea,(no)information,(her) courage
这时,可数名词前不必加不定冠词a或变为复数。
4.有些名词总是用作可数名词的,如: leg,dog,pen.有些名词总是用作不可数名词,如: pork,gold,honesty.有些则有时用作可数名词,有时用作不可数名词,如:
It is made of glass.(不可数)
He held a glass.(可数)
Revolution destroyed the old system.(不可数)
There broke out a revolution.(可数)
有时名词总是用于复数形式,因此总是可数名词,如: bow-els,barracks,assets。
B.与5类名词的关系
24 区分5类名词对决定一个名词是可数还是不可数有极其重要的意义。字典中常用C代表可数(Countable),用U代表不可数(Uncountable)。
1.大多数普通名词为可数名词,如: a chair,another car,dogs.
2.多数集体名词也是可数名词,如:(a)family,(each)class,(all) parties,(different) nations。
3.专有名词,多数作不可数名词,如:London,China,Ham-bet,Neptune;但有些为可数名词,如 Communists,English-men。
4.物质名词一般不可数,如:milk,gold,coffee,beer.但有些可用作可数名词,表示特殊意义,如:an ice-cream(一份冰淇淋),a light rain(一阵小雨)。
5.多数的抽象名词既可作不可数名词,也可作可数名词(这时意思有些变化),如:
不可数 可数
beauty 美 a beauty 美人
disappointment 失望 a disappointment 失望的事
knowledge知识 a knowledge(对……的)了解
agreement同意 an agreement协议
C.普通名词和物质名词
25 不过一个名词的可数与不可数问题最终还是靠习惯决定,习惯用法是自然形成的,不能靠简单的条文来推断。虽说表示可数的东西为可数名词,否则为不可数名词,但总有些特殊情况。在表示定形之物时,物质名词也可用作可数名词,在强调某种特性时,普通名词也可变成不可数名词。
1.气体名称通常作不可数名词,如:oxygen(氧气),hydrogen(氢气)。但odour(气味),flavor(味道),cloud(云)是可数名词;而fire则既可作不可数名词,也可作可数名词。
2.液体名称一般为不可数名词,如:milk,water;但beverage(饮料),cocktail(鸡尾酒)为可数名词,而juice(汁)、sauce(调味液)、liquor(酒)既可作可数名词,也可作不可数名词。
3.药品名称通常不可数,如: codeine;但antibiotic(抗生素),insecticide(杀虫剂),vitamin(维生素)都是可数的。
4.植物中有些的名称既作可数名词,也可作不可数名词,如:
可数 不可数
a fir 冷杉树 fir 冷杉木
a pine 松树 pine 松木
a pepper 青椒 pepper 胡椒粉
5.表示天气的名词多作不可数名词,如:lightning(闪电),thunder(雷),snow,但有些为可数名词,如: comet(慧星),
sunbean(阳光),ray(光线)。有些可用作两类,如: mist(浓雾),dew(露水),rain。
6.表示动物的名词一般为可数名词,如: monkey,elephant,shrimp(虾),但有些可用于两类情况,如:
可数 不可数
a chicken鸡 chicken鸡肉
a duck 鸭 duck鸭肉
a fish鱼 fish 鱼(肉)
7.物质名词一般不可数,如: iron,plaster(石膏),mercury(水银)。有些两者都可以,如:chalk(粉笔),brick(砖),coal(煤)。
D.集体名词
26 有个别集体名词可用作不可数名词,如: police(警察总称),cattle(牲口),produce(农产品),vegetation(植物),clothing(衣服),furniture(家具),pottery(陶器)。
E.抽象名词
27 1.在一万个抽象名词中约有 72%(约7 200字)常常或有时既作不可数名词,又作可数名词,如: belief,beliefs; birth,births; hope,hopes;fear,fears。
2.约有12%(约1200字)只能用作不可数名词,如:abun-dance,astonishment,conduct,cooperation,envy,ease,fever,harm,honesty,intellect,neglect,obedience,prose,revenge。
3.约有13%(约1300字)只能用作可数名词,如:answer,award,bribe(贿赂),boast(夸口),case(情况),cry(叫声),quarrel(争吵),trick(诡计),scream(尖叫),knock(敲击),mistake,example,epoch(时代),event(事件),episode(插曲),earthquake(地震)。
4.约有3%(约300字)在用于特定意义时常用复数形式,如:riches(财富),effects(用品),thanks(感谢),manners(礼貌),rituals(宗教仪式),nerves(神经紧张),wishes(祝愿),morals(品德),excesses(过分行动),doings(行为),miseries(苦难经历),sufferings(种种苦难)。
Ⅴ.名词的性
A.定义
28 1.表示男性人或雄性动物的名词,属于阳性( Masculine Gen-der),如boy,hero,man-servant,lion,stallion(雄马)。
2.表示女性的人或雌性动物的名词,属于阴性(Feminine Gen-der),如 girl,heroine,maid-servant,lioness,mare(母马)。
3.可表示两性的名词属于普通性(Common Gender),如teacher,child,student,friend。
4.表示无生命东西的名词,属于中性( Neutral Gender),如bank,sand,house,day,honor。
B.人的性
1.阳性与阴性
29 表示人的名词可以5种方式构成阴性名词:
a.在阳性名词后加词尾-ess:
阳性: heir,priest,poet,giant,host,god,jew,count,baron,prince,peer,patron,steward,shepherd,prophet,seer,author,tutor,tailor,baker,viscount,brewer,manager,archer,quaker(有些表示动物的名词也如此,如 lion,leopard,pamther)
阴性:heiress,priestess,poetess,等等(但Goddess,princess例外)
b.把阳性名词的-ter或-tor改为-tress:
阳性: hunter,tempter,songster,painter,waiter,porter,mister,enchanter,founder,arbiter;traitor,sculptor actor,elector,conductor,editor,preceptor,bene-fac tor,director,inheritor,protector,instructor,ances-tor,doctor,monitor,translator
阴性: huntress,temptress,traitress,sculptress,等等。c.把阳性名词的词尾-rer或-ror改为-ress:
阳性: adventurer,adulterer,launderer,murderer,sorcerer,caterer,procurer,emperor
阴性: adventuress,adulteress,等等。
d.在阳性名词后加上外来的阴性词尾:
阳性: director,proprietor,administrator,executor,testa-tor,prosecutor,inheritor,arbitrator,mediator,spec-tator,dictator; beau,fiancé,hero,czar(或 tsar,tzar),don,signor,sultan
阴性: testatrix,prosecutrix,diuctrix,executrix,propri-etrix,(但-tress更常用) belle,fiancée,heroine,cza-rina,donna,signora,sultana
以上阴性名词有些现在已很少用。
e.用另一词表示阴性:
阳性 阴性 阳性 阴性
abbot abbess man woman
bachelor maid,spinster marquis marchioness
bridegroom bride monk(friar) nun
brother sister master mistress
butler housekeeper Master Miss
chef,cook cook Monsieur Madame
duke duchess Mr. Mrs.
Englishman Englishwoman negro negress
father mother nephew niece
footman maid sire dam,dame
gentleman lady sloven slut
grandfather grandmother son daughter
Herr Frau swain npmph,
wench
husband wife tutor governess
Irishman Irishwoman uncle aunt
king queen votary votaress
kinsman kinswoman warder wardress
lad(boy) lass(girl) widower widow
landlord landlady wizard witch
lord lady youth young girl
2.普通性
30 普通性的名词很多,如:
student,pupil,baby,infant,orphan,servant,relation,cousin,friend,enemy,professor,doctor,governor,lover,teacher,judge,barber,secretary,worker,Greek,Japanese ,Turk,fel-low,devil,pedant,reader,player,comer,novelist,pianist,at-tendant,correspondent,etc.
其中许多是两性名词的通词,如:
person=man or woman spouse= husband or wife
parent= father or mother sovereign= king or queen
=emperor or empress
child=boy or girl monarch=sovereign
child=son or daughter aristocrat= lord or lady
betrothed=fiancé or fiancée employer=master or mis-
tress
relative= kinsman or kins-woman
有些词虽属普通性,如 shoemaker,merchant,soldier,实际上通常指男性。另一些普通性名词,如 nurse,cook,dressmaker,在现实生活中多指女性。因此he或she都可用来代表这类名词。普通性名词可根据习惯及使用场合来决定它们的性。为了表示这类词到底指男性或女性,可以在它们前面加一表示性别的词,如:
male baby female baby gentleman lady friend
friend
male cousin female cousin man-servant maid-servant
boy student girl student gentleman lady teacher
teacher
boy friend girl friend gentleman lady reader
reader
boy reporter girl reporter male editor woman editor
menfolk(s) womenfolk(s) male scientist woman scientist
有些合成词,可用后面的词表示性别,如:
orphan-boy orphan-girl washerman washerwoman
milkman milkwoman tradesman tradeswoman
horseman horsewoman office boy office girl
近年来有趋势用普通性的名词代表两性,如fire fighter(消防队员),members of Congress(国会议员),business people(商人),student,doctor,poet。而避免用fireman,congressman等。-ess结尾的词(如poetess)有些已不多用,以防认为歧视妇女。
C.动物的性
31 表示动物的名词可以下表表示,顺便也列出其叫声及居住地。带括号的阳性名词指被阉割的动物:
普通性 阳性 阴性 幼畜 肉 叫声 居住地
ass jack-ass jenny-ass — — bray stable
— he-ass she-ass — — — —
bear he-bear she-bear — — grunt cave
— — — — — growl —
bee drone queen-bee — — drone hive
— — — buzz apiary
cat he-cat she-cat kitten — mew —
— tomcat — — — purr —
cattle bull cow calf beef bellow bullpen
— (bullock) — (steer) veal moo cow-shed
— (ox) — heifer — low —
deer stog hind fawn venison bellow covert
— hart — — — thicket
dog dog bitch puppy dog bark kenne
— — — — meat growl doghouse
— — — — — snarl —
duck drake duck duckling duck quack duckpen
elephant bull- cow- calf — trumpet —
— elephant elephant — — — —
fowl cock hen chicken chicken crow roost
— chanticleer — chick — chicken-
— rooster — cockerel — cackle house
— — — — — —
fox fox vixen cub — bark hole
— dog-fox bitch-fox — — — burrow
— he-fox she-fox — — — —
goat he-goat she-goat kid goat‘s bleat —
— billygoat nannygoat — meat — —
goose gander goose gosling goose quack goosepen
horse stallion mare foal horse- neigh stable
meat
— (gelding) — filly — whinny —
— stallion — colt — — —
lion lion lioness lion-cub — roar den
— — — — — growl lair
monkey he-monkey she-monkey — — chatter —
— — — — — gibber —
peafowl peacock peahen peachick — cry —
pheasant cock- hen- — — crow nest
— pheasant pheasant — — —
pig boar sow piglet port snort sty
— (hog) — — — grunt —
— — — — — squeal —
rabbit buck- doe- — rabbit squeal burrow
— rabbit rabbit — — — warren
seal bull cow pup — bark —
sheep ram ewe lamb mutton bleat fold
— (wether)— — — baa —
sparrow cock- hen-sparrow — chirp nest
— sparrow — — — — —
tiger tiger tigress tiger-cub — roar den
— — — — — growl lair
turkey turkey- turkey- — turkey gobble —
— cock hen — — — —
大动物,如giraffe(长颈鹿),hippo(河马),whale(鲸鱼),rhino(犀牛)的幼畜都可称作calf。食肉动物,如wolf,fox,bear,shark的幼畜可称作cub。小的毛皮动物,如rabit,fox,heaver(河狸)的幼畜可称为kit。鸟类的幼禽可称作chick或fledgling。鱼苗称为fry。所有动物的幼畜(禽)都可称作baby,youngling。幼猪称为cygnet,幼鹰称为eaglet,幼兔称为lev-eret,小袋鼠称为joey。(关于动物群体的名称见526节)
其他动物名称均属普通性,前面可加male或female来表示其性别。It可用来指两种性别的动物,不过也可用he或she。
D.事物的性
32下面名词均属中性名词,若是单数,可用it代表:
无生命的东西 pen,ear,water,paper
植物 pine,rose,cabbage,branch
小动物 mosquito,dragonfly,bug
抽象名词 colour,hardness,strength,honesty
集体名词 family,army,company,forest
下面名词虽为中性,但其单数形式可用she,her,hers代表:飞机、汽车、轮船、小船、火车,机车的名称;机器、枪炮、发动机的名称;国家名称。
有些抽象名词可以人格化,开头字母可大写。如果表示伟大、力量、暴力,通常作为男性看待,可用he,his代表其单数形式。如果指美丽、温柔或低下,常看作女性,其单数形式可用she,her,hers代表,如:
作男性看待:June,Summer,Sun,Day,Mountain,Thunder,Hurricane,Ocean,Death,War,Revenge,Anger,Despair,Murder
作女性看待:Spring,Moon,Nature,Night;Peace,Hope,Liberty,Truth,Mercy,Victory,Art,Science,Soul
Ⅵ.名词的作用
33名词在句子中起重要作用,了解它的作用对掌握句子至关重要。它在句子中有15种作用,如作主语、宾语、表语等。它是句子中最为重要的词。它可以用作:
1.主语(Subject):
Mother went to the market.John has called on me.A big ship is coming here.Some goods will arrive tomorrow.
表示“谁……”或“什么……”,亦即动作的执行者。一般都放在句首。
2.宾语(Object):
He has a dog.John may help Mary.John can cross this dan-gerous river.She should do the job for you.
表示动作的承受者,通常放在及物动词后面。
3.间接宾语(Indirect Object)和直接宾语(Direct Object)
She gave John a fan.The teacher told chilren stories.
He bought his brother apples.She cooked her husband a big fish.
双宾动词(Dative Verb)后有两个宾语:指人的间接宾语,如:John,children;指物的直接宾语,如fan,stories。
4.主语的补语(Subjective Complement):
Miss Lee is a nurse.Mary has become a teacher.Lee re-mains a bachelor.The ruins have been a palace.
表示主语是谁,成为什么。主语和补语通常指同一个人或同样东西。句子的动词多为系动词(Link Verbs)。补语多放在系动词后面。
5.宾语的补语(Objective Complement):
I consider the world a school.They elected my uncle presi-dent.I found Lee a coward.I will keep the matter a secret.
对宾语作补充说明,表示它成为什么,被认为如何等等。它和宾语有密切关系,通常紧跟在宾语后面。与之相对,说明主语是谁或成为什么,称为主语的补语。主语的补语和宾语的补语都对另一名词作进一步说明。试比较下面句子:
主语的补语 宾语的补语
The world is a school I consider the world a school.
My uncle became president. They elected my uncle president.
6.第1类用法中动词后没有宾语或补语,这种动词称为不及物动词(Intransitive Verbs)。第2类用法中的动词有宾语,这种动词称为及物动词(Transitive Verbs)。第3类用法中动词有两个宾语,这种动词称为双宾动词(Dative Verbs)。第4类用法中,动词后有一个补语,这种动词称为系动词(Lin-king Verbs或Link-verbs)。第5类用法中宾语后还有一个补语,这种动词称为宾补动词(Factitive Verbs)。这些名称有助于说明动词的性质及所要求的结构,值得注意。
7.介词的宾语(Prepositional Object):
He went to school.John spoke for his boss.On Sunday he told me the news.In a word,he has done his best.
表示与介词有关的东西,和介词表示一个较完整的意思。这种宾语一般紧跟在介词后面,它和介词一起构成介词短语。
8.状语(Adverbial):
The cannon roared(at)each minute.He will come(on)next week.He has walked(for)five miles.It is(for)six inches long.
用来修饰动词或形容词,表示长度、时间等,在多数情况下前面还有修饰语,如:(each)minute,(next)week.有时也可单独用作状语,如:It lasted hours.He’ll be back Mon-day.
这种名词通常表示时间(长度)、距离、重量、价格等。由于看起来有些像宾语,有人也称它为状宾语(Adverbial Objec-tive)。
9.呼语(Vocative):
John,come here.Come here,John.You may,John,come here any time.O Sea,stop roaring!Shall I die or live,myLord?
是对讲话对象的直接称呼,如上面的John,Sea和Lord.呼语可放在句首,句子中间或末尾。
10.感叹语(Exclamation):
Poor John!He failed again.He failed again,poor John!Fire!Be quick!Mother!There she comes!
可用作感叹语,如上面的John,Fire,Mother,它有独立作用,与后面部分有时并无直接关系。
11.同位语(Appositive):
My friend John is a strange man.This is Mr.Lee,head-master of A.B.High School.He bought many things:books,stamps and pictures.He does not like that city—the den of all evils.
表示前面名词或代词究竟指什么,或对前面的名词或代词作补充说明,如上面的John,head master,books,stamps and pictures以及den都分别对friend,Mr.Lee,things,city作进一步说明。
12.定语(Attributive):
They lives in a country house.They are at the harvest festi-val.He often visits a night-club.He held an oillamp.I know a silversmith.He read a newspaper.
用来修饰后面另一名词,或与另一名词构成合成词,如上面的country,harvest等。
13.所有格形式的定语:
This is John‘s car.He is the headmaster’s secretary.
The dog‘s leg is wounded.He is a fortune’s favourite.
表示“……的”,即后面名词表示的东西属于谁。
14.动名词逻辑上的主语:
They thought Tom‘s going there a mistake.He suggested my son’s going abroad.Mary‘s getting married will be an-nounced next week.
表示动名词(如going,getting)的执行者。
15.分词逻辑上的主语:
John being ill,his brother went in his place.
The sun having set,we went home.
She sat there,her head bent low.
He came into the room,his face covered with sweat.
表示这是谁的情况,如John生病,太阳落山等。
16.(和for连用)不定式逻辑上的主语:
For Lee to learn English is necessary.They stood aside for the boss to enter.Is there anything for the clerk to do?This is not a book for children to read.
17.最后3类有共同之处。动名词、分词和不定式不是谓语,本来不应有主语,但从意义上说,所表示的动作也有执行者,因此可以有逻辑上的主语(Logical Subject),也有人称作意义上的主语(Sense Subject)。
Ⅶ.名词的位置
34 名词的位置一般根据它的作用来决定。主语一般在谓语的前面,宾语在及物动词的后面等等。这些从上面Ⅵ的例句中可以看出。但有时有一些特殊情况,值得初学者注意。
例如作主语的名词和谓语之间有时可插入其他成分,如定语(1)、状语(2)或插入语(3)。
The man came to see me yesterday.(原句)
The man(1)from Africa came to see me yesterday.
The man(1)who had done business in Africa came to see me yesterday.The man(2)secretly came to see me yesterday.
The man,(2)as he had something to tell me,came to see me yesterday.
The man,(3)you know,came to see me yesterday.又如及物动词和宾语之间也可插入状语(1)、定语(2)或插入语(3):
I like the food of this country.(原句)
I like(1)very much the food of this country.
I like,(1)as you do,the food of this country.
I like(2)all kinds of food of this country.
I like,(3)of course,the food of this country.
其他作用的名词也有类似情况。
另外,为了强调、对比等需要,名词可以放在特殊位置,如:1.主语放在谓语后面:
In the village live only old men.
Into the city gate came many peasants.
2.宾语放在谓语前面:
Wealth he loves,but knowledge he hates.(为了强调)
Water he gives to the hungry,and bread he gives to the thirsty.(表示对比)
All the people in all the world,he calls fools.(宾语太长)
3.补语放在动词前面:
Fools are all those young boys!(为了强调)
Ⅷ.名词的格
35 根据在句中的作用,名词可以分为3种情况,称为“格”,即:1.主格,由主格的代词(I,we,he,she等)代表:谓语的主语:John(He)came.
分词的意义上的主语:The weather(It)being so cold,we didn’t want to go out.
补语:The visitor is John(he).
呼语:Come here,John(you).
2.所有格,由物主代词(my,our,his,her等)代表:定语:I like John‘s(his)car.
动名词意义上的主语:John’s(His)coming will be wel-come.
3.宾格,由宾格的代词(me,us,him,her等)代表:及物动词宾语:I know Mary(her).
双宾动词的间接宾语:He gave Jane(her)some money.双宾动词的直接宾语:She offered me a seat.
宾补动词的宾语:I thought Tom(him)a nice man.宾朴动词的补语:They call her Lily.
介词的宾语:This car belongs to Tom(him).
不定式意义上的主语:For Henry(him)to do it is good.用作同位语的名词和前面名词的格相同:
Mr.Lee,a friend of mine,is a nice fellow.(同为主格)Many people know Mr.Lee,my friend.(同为宾格)
Ⅸ.一个名词和另一名词在数上的一致性
36 在某些句子中,一个名词和句中另一名词有数上的一致性,如:Jim is a friend of mine.(Jim和friend同为单数)但在某些习惯用法中却有时违反这种一致性,如:
Joe is no longer friends with me.
You have the head of ten persons.这里be friends with为习用语,head有抽象意义,因此句子是对的。这里再举一些类似的句子(里面黑体词为主要名词,斜体词为其他名词):
主要名词为单数的情况
His room is all books and bottles.
The area is mainly marshes.My family is mostly scholars.
Jim made faces at me.He made friends with Greg.
Ann waited for buses.I like to work in hospitals.
It affected the life of many workers.
What‘s the surname of those two brothers?
主要名词为复数的情况
These TVs are a new product.Dogs are a good topic.
Women have an eye for fashion.Some people use their left hand.
Most houses have a fire-escape.Many families keep a dog.The graduates were awarded a diploma.
We eat with a good appetite.We fought tooth and nail to get it.
但在指某些具体情况时后面名词要用复数:
The boys washed their faces. All kept their breaths.Some protestors burned themselves to death.
在指一般性情况时后面名词用单数:
Roosters have a comb.Dogs have a sharp ear.Some Asians eat with their hand,not with chopsticks.有时用单数是为了避免误解:
All members signed their name.Young people should choose their partner carefully.Many cast a vote for Ida.Husbands should care for their wife.
不可数名词只能用单数,在某些习惯用语中也如此:
Few houses have furniture.They showed honesty.These two children were forced into marriage.
They will measure their strength.They will put life into the task.
Ⅹ.词与词之间的多种关系
37 一个句子中的词和另外的词归纳起来有下面12种关系:
1.主语和谓语的关系;
2.意义上的主语与非谓语动词(即动名词、分词及不定式)的关系;
3.及物动词与宾语的关系;
4.双宾动词与其间接宾语及直接宾语的关系;
5.系动词和主语补语的关系;
6.宾补动词和其宾语及补语的关系;
7.被修饰词与修饰语的关系;
8.名词与其同位语的关系;
9.介词与其宾语的关系;
10.并列连词与所连接的两个并列成分之间的关系;
11.从属连词,与它引起的从句,与句子其他部分的3方关系;
12.独立成分。
38 现在我们研究一下上面所讲的12个问题:
1)上面涉及27种句子成分,也就是词在句子中的27种不同的语法作用。在1、2、3、5、7、8、9类中各包含两个成分,在4、6、10、11中各包含3个成分。在第12类中只有一个成分。
2)任何一个词在句子中必须至少担任一个句子成分,起一种句法作用。
3)没有一个词在句子中是完全孤立的,它必然和句子中另一个词或另一些词有某种关系。上面清楚说明了这种关系。如果有一个词是谓语动词,必然在某处有它的主语。如果某一词为及物动词,必然在某处有它的宾语。总之,句子成分从不单独存在。在1、2、3、5、8、9六类组合中各有两个成分有这种相互关系。
4)在4、6、10、11四类组合中,有3个成分之间存在相互关系。只要有双宾动词,必然同时也要有间接宾语及直接宾格。反过来也一样,只要有间接宾语,在近处也一定有双宾动词及直接宾语。如果有一并列连词,必然会有两个并列成分,一个在它前面,一个在它后面。
5)必须指出,在27种句子成分中,独立成分是唯一与句子其他部分没有关系的成分,如:
John(呼语),may I have a talk with you?
Let me kiss you,my dearest one.(呼语)
Oh(感叹语)!What are you bringing to me?
My God!(感叹语)Did I tell you to do so?
All the world,it seems(插入语),is dismal and gloomy.
6)一个句子必须具有主语及谓语,除此之外,还可以有一个非谓语动词及其意义上的主语,3、4、5、6类句子中的动词可以是谓语动词或非谓语动词,如:
I(主语)have(谓语动词)no doubt about John’s(意义上的主语)winning(非谓语动词)the game(非谓语动词的宾语).
He(主语)does not earn(谓语动词)enough for his son(意义上的主语)to spend(非谓语动词).
The sun(意义上的主语)having set(非谓语动词),thefarmers(主语)went(谓语动词)home.
7)被修饰的词若为名词,其修饰语多为形容词,如:
He is a rich(修饰语)man(被修饰词).
He has a bad(修饰语)habit(被修饰词).
被修饰语若为动词、形容词、副词、介词短语、连词乃至是整个句子,其修饰语多为副词,如:
He works(被修饰动词)hard(修饰语副词).
It is very(修饰语副词)easy(被修饰形容词).
He progressed extremely(修饰语副词)slowly(被修饰副词).
8)每个成分的位置多如前面所列位置。主语通常放在谓语动词前面。宾语一般放在及物动词后面。介词常常放在其宾语的前面。但有时也有例外情况,如:
There were(谓语动词)many people(主语)there.
Fish(宾语)John rarely eats(及物动词).
This(直接宾语)you can give(双宾动词)him(间接宾语)tomorrow.
Gone(主语的补语)are(系动词)Mary‘s happy years(主语)!
至于7,11,12三类中成分却无一定位置。
9)每个成分不仅可以是单词,也可以是短语,如:
John(单词作主语)came(单词作谓语)yesterday(单词作状语).
Singapore Elementary School(短语作主语)will be opening(短语作谓语)next week(短语作状语).
He likes(单词作谓语)coffee(单词作宾语).
He is fond of(短语作谓语)swimming in the river(短语作宾语).
He is(系动词)angry(单词作补语).
He is out of temper(短语作补语).
He said nothing about(介词)his family(单词作宾语).
He said nothing with regard to(短语介词)what to do(短语作宾语).
有些成分还可用从句表示,如:
That he plays the violin very well(从句作主语)is(系动词)absolutely true.
I know(单词作谓语)that he plays the violin very well(从句作宾语).
I asked(单词作谓语)John(间接宾语)why he did not go tocollege(从句作直接宾语).
He is a man(单词作被修饰语)who knows himself(从句作修饰语).
10)一个词或一个短语有时在句中可有两种作用,即可担任两个成分,如:
A young doctor called on me.(doctor是谓语动词called的主语,又是一个被修饰的词,其修饰语为young)
He is a man of few words.(man是系动词后的补语,它又是被修饰词,其修饰语为of few words)
Writing essays is not easy.(writing是句子的主语,又是宾语essays前的及物动词)